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Descriptors:
Females; Social Justice; Cultural Pluralism; Well Being; Foreign Countries; Social Change; Correlation; Freedom; Gender Differences; Guidelines; Personal Narratives; History; Cultural Context; Sex Fairness

Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is to understand historically and contextually the well-being and agency of selected female teachers in Turkey. The paper develops a justice model based on the capability approach to build on the relation between freedom and equality, and to take gender and cultural diversity as a key element. The research draws on results from in-depth biographical narratives of 15 participants from west Turkey, examining the real freedoms and opportunities of three different generations of female teachers through constructing a gendered look into women's lives. The study begins by developing a framework linking women's opportunities and freedoms drawing its normative compass from Martha Nussbaum's capabilities approach. It explores how female teachers' well-being can be understood in relation to key capabilities that individuals, communities and society have reason to value and how these capabilities and functionings can be expanded or constrained. The paper argues for the significance of thinking about capabilities in the professional lives of teachers who work for social change. Through a historical and generational sequence, it captures the egalitarian aspects of the capability approach, and strengthens its emphasis on freedoms of women. The findings of this enquiry indicate that there are persistent economic, cultural, ethnical, structural and gendered inequalities in women's lives, but that women also have agency to bring changes in their lives and through their teaching. (Contains 2 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Females; Educational Policy; Equal Education; Sex Fairness; Discourse Analysis; Gender Issues; International Organizations; Feminism; Empowerment; Justice; Gender Differences; Social Differences

Abstract:
Girls' education has been a focus of international development policy for several decades. The discursive framing of international organizations' policy initiatives relating to girls' education, however, limits the potential for discussing complex gender issues that affect the possibilities for gender equity. Because discourse shapes our understanding of reality, the emphases and omissions of policy language can affect our understanding of complex issues such as the challenges of girls' education in international development. Using feminist critical policy discourse analysis, this study analyzes 300 policy documents, published between 1995 and 2008, that represent the "public face" of 14 organizations active in the field of international development education. We examine three types of discursive arguments given in the documents for educating girls: justice arguments, utility arguments, and empowerment arguments. We show that the robustness of "gender", and related concepts such as equity and equality as theoretical constructs, are limited, which is a factor constraining what can be understood as important in gender equity in education. Policy remains focused on girls and not gender (or boys), and on easily measurable indicators (counting boys and girls in school). This policy discourse does little to recognize that gender as a social process reproduces--or has the potential to challenge--social inequities. (Contains 1 table and 5 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Pregnancy; Females; Foreign Countries; Mexicans; Social Change; Rural Schools; Nationalism; Marital Status; Feminism; Gender Bias; Political Influences; Violence; Teacher Salaries; Sex Fairness; Catholics; Victims; Age; Educational History

Abstract:
The reflections presented in this article include the process of incorporating women teachers into schools during the post-revolutionary period in Mexico. From one standpoint, women teachers lived in a state of ambiguity throughout this period because they were seen as symbols of national reconstruction following a war that left more than one million people dead. From another standpoint, they were victims of political and gender violence in a country that had not yet been pacified and was experiencing deep divisions between the armed Catholic groups that fought against the government. The process of the feminisation of Mexican teaching is approached through an analysis of the socio-professional conditions of rural teachers around the period of 1924 to 1945. There are a range of sources that were used for this research, including oral and documental. The collection of records of rural teachers from the Archivo Historico de la Secretaria de Educacion Publica are important in terms of a regional study that was done in the Valle del Mezquital as well as in a current national study. After reviewing over three thousand teacher files, I have been able to verify that many of these women were empowered and conscious of their significance in the national identity. They took advantage of the situation to obtain gender work benefits, which included equal wages to men, pregnancy leave regardless of marital status or age and uninterrupted contracts. This mobilisation by women teachers throughout the entire country was unprecedented in the professional history of Mexican women workers. These teachers fought many daily battles, both individually and collectively, to maintain their jobs, by writing letters to the head of the Rural School Department, sharing their stories and the injustices they experienced in their daily lives. Nonetheless, it is notable that for the first time, a collection of female voices can be found in the teacher files; these women did not want to keep quiet and they reflect a desire to participate in social change for themselves and their communities. (Contains 2 tables, 2 figures and 19 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Higher Education; Females; Foreign Countries; Sex Fairness; Admission (School); School Holding Power; Academic Persistence; School Choice; Womens Education; Gender Bias; Equal Education; College Students; Gender Differences; Interviews; Enrollment Trends; Graduation Rate; Cultural Influences

Abstract:
Jordan is viewed as a country of social, political, and economic and advancement. It currently leads the region in literacy rates and is well on its way to achieving gender equity. However, some reports claim that Jordan maintains the widest gender gap in higher education completion in the region while others report that the percentage of females is higher than males. There is a body of literature on college student retention but no such work has taken place in the Middle East, and more specifically in Jordan, on the experiences of women in higher education and retention. This study explores the experiences of 18 women that, at the time of the data collection (2008-2009), were in their final year or semester of higher education and preparing to graduate (average age 22.3 years old) and 10 women, that were at one point formally enrolled but at the time of the study had departed from completing higher education (average age 22.8 years old). These women represented 13 different universities (7 public and 6 private) throughout Jordan. Interviews were conducted with each participant. In addition to interviews, visits with the women were conducted on the university campus and official university and ministry education records were collected to examine enrollment, graduation, and retention rates. These varied qualitative methods allowed for a holistic exploration of the patterns in the persistence of women in higher education. This study found that the main retention theories formed in the United States are not completely adequate in helping explain the situation of women in Jordan and this study alters and extends them, placing more weight on characteristics at the individual-level, rather than on the institutional-level, with more attention paid to the role of the commute and the inflexibility of the higher education admissions process, in order to make them more applicable to the context of women in Jordan. (Contains 1 figure, 2 tables, and 9 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Information Technology; Elementary School Teachers; Comparative Analysis; Foreign Countries; Teacher Attitudes; Personality; Student Characteristics; Gender Differences; Sex Stereotypes; Questionnaires; Technological Literacy; Student Interests; Sex Fairness; Teacher Education; Elementary School Students

Abstract:
The purpose of this study was to examine primary teachers' views about the abilities and personality characteristics of boys and girls relative to information and communication technologies (ICTs) and computing, and to explore the relationship of teachers' gender-stereotyped views with teachers' gender, age, computer experience and self-efficacy in educational computer use. Participants were 241 Greek primary teachers who responded to a structured questionnaire. All teachers recognised that developing ICT skills was equally important for all students, but nearly half of them thought that boys were more likely to have the aptitude, interest and personality characteristics to pursue studies in information or computer science. Teacher views on gender and technology were not associated with teacher gender, self-efficacy in educational ICT use, computer experience or age. Findings suggest that teacher preparation and professional development programmes should address gender equity issues. (Contains 3 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Females; Employment Level; Child Care; Foreign Countries; Sex Role; Sex Fairness; Housework; Outsourcing; Correlation; Mothers; Children; Birth; Risk; Family Work Relationship; Marital Satisfaction; Interpersonal Relationship

Abstract:
This study investigates whether gender inequality in the division of housework and child care may be an obstacle to childbearing and relationship stability among different groups of British couples. Furthermore, it explores whether outsourcing of domestic labor ameliorates any negative effects of domestic work inequality. The empirical investigation uses event-history analysis based on 14 waves (1992-2005) of the British Household Panel Study. The author finds that the association between domestic work arrangements and family outcomes vary by the presence of children, women's employment, and gender role attitudes. Gender inequality in domestic work reduces relationship stability among egalitarian childless women and among all mothers. For first and second births as outcomes, the association is weaker and depends on the level of inequality and women's employment status, respectively. Domestic outsourcing is not significant for these family outcomes with the exception of formal child care, which is positively associated with the risk of a second birth. (Contains 4 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Parent Child Relationship; Assertiveness; Foreign Countries; Socialization; Parenting Styles; Semi Structured Interviews; Urban Areas; Statistical Analysis; Parent Attitudes; Coding; Prosocial Behavior; Sex Fairness; Gender Differences; Children

Abstract:
The authors report a semistructured interview of 328 urban Chinese parents regarding their parenting beliefs and practices with respect to their only children. Statistical analyses of the coded parental interviews and peer nomination data from the children show none of the traditional Chinese parenting or child behaviors that have been widely reported in the literature. The parenting of only children in urban China was predominantly authoritative rather than authoritarian. The parenting strategies and beliefs were child-centered, egalitarian, and warmth-oriented rather than control-oriented. Chinese parents encouraged prosocial assertiveness and discouraged behavioral constraint and modesty. The parenting of only children was also gender egalitarian in that there were few gender differences in child social behaviors and little gender differential parenting and socialization of these only children. Together with other recent studies, these findings and conclusions challenge the traditionalist view of Chinese parenting and beliefs and behaviors about child socialization. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Females; Spatial Ability; Majors (Students); Gender Discrimination; Health Occupations; Doctoral Degrees; Males; Sex Fairness; Equal Education; Womens Education; Undergraduate Study; Graduate Study; STEM Education; Social Bias; Teacher Salaries; Role Models; Mentors

Abstract:
Engineering and teaching are among the most lopsided disciplines in academe's gender split. In 2010, women received 80 percent of the undergraduate degrees awarded in education, the U.S. Education Department reports. And they earned 77 percent of the master's and 67 percent of the doctoral degrees in that field. In engineering, by contrast, women earned just 18 percent of undergraduate, 22 percent of master's, and 23 percent of doctoral degrees. Nationally, women are heading to college in record numbers and now make up 57 percent of undergraduates. Women also earn 60 percent of all master's and 52 percent of all doctoral degrees, according to U.S. Education Department statistics, which include doctorates earned in professional fields like medicine and dentistry. But for all the efforts colleges are making to diversify their departments, some fields of study remain stubbornly single sex. At the undergraduate level, some of the most female-intensive disciplines are in health professions and related clinical sciences, where women make up 85 percent of the majors; in psychology, where 77 percent of majors are women; and in English and foreign languages, with 68 and 69 percent women. Among the more male-dominated fields for undergraduate majors are philosophy and religious studies, at 63 percent, and mathematics, at 57 percent. Perhaps nowhere has the gender gap been more pronounced, or more studied, than in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics--the STEM fields. Women are still a minority in those fields despite more than a decade of outreach. Researchers at Rice University found that both male and female scientists view gender discrimination as a factor in women's decisions not to pursue a science career or to opt for biology over physics. Not surprisingly, the gender distribution of professors in the STEM disciplines is similarly skewed. Many still view science and math as male fields and humanities and art as female. Boys and men tend to score higher in spatial skills that are important in fields like engineering, but with the right support and exposure, girls can be just as successful. The problem is, they often don't get that encouragement. There are fewer role models and mentors in traditionally male fields, and even academics who profess to support women often harbor hidden biases. For schools of education, the problem is attracting men. Low teacher salaries are the most common explanation for gender imbalance. Men might also be discouraged by the diminishing status of teachers and the suspicion that many people have about the motives of men working with children. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Females; Labor Force; Scientists; Sexual Harassment; Gender Issues; Gender Bias; Sex Fairness; Career Choice; STEM Education; Women Faculty; College Faculty; Educational Opportunities; School Policy; Social Discrimination; Federal Legislation; Equal Opportunities (Jobs)

Abstract:
As more women choose careers in the sciences, the stakes are higher than ever before. Having women in key decision-making positions in the scientific and technological work force is critical to the future of society. Successful senior female scientists serve as a prime source of leadership for top academic administrative positions. A more diverse work force in the science, engineering, technology, and mathematics (STEM) fields not only allows women and other members of underrepresented groups to reap the benefits of the relatively high salaries of scientists and engineers. It may also lead to innovations in science and engineering, since people from different backgrounds bring diverse approaches to problem-solving--in the classroom, laboratories, and on the job--that can improve daily lives. Academe continues to improve for women, who represent more than 30 percent of STEM faculty at four-year institutions. Although the percentage drops precipitously at elite research institutions, particularly at the rank of full professor (about 10 percent are women), a 2009 report from the National Academy of Sciences found improving opportunities nationally for women in tenure-track positions at those institutions. Because of Title VII and Title IX, virtually all institutions have articulated policies banning gender discrimination and sexual harassment. Many now have policies that facilitate balancing career and family, during especially crucial life transitions. Although old issues remain with new facets and faces, progress has been made in cultivating female scientists and changing institutional structures. As President Obama has emphasized, to compete in the global market, the United States needs to increase the percentage of Americans graduating from college over all, and the numbers of scientists and engineers. To achieve this, the scientific work force needs to change from being predominantly white and male to reflect the demographics of the population as a whole. Even more than in basic research, applications for technology and inventions depend upon the experiences and ideas of the designers. More women, as well as more diversity in general, in the STEM work force not only helps to guard against bias but may lead to new ideas that will improve life for everybody. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Females; Equal Education; Foreign Countries; Human Capital; Workshops; Power Structure; Knowledge Level; Politics; Intervention; Sex Fairness; Economic Development; Poverty; Financial Support; Educational Policy; Qualitative Research; Educational Practices; Global Approach

Abstract:
Gender equality in education has become a highly embedded norm in global development policy, as well as within the poverty reduction and national development policies of aid recipient countries. Despite such progress, however, we know little about the significance of competing gender equality and education policy orientations (e.g., human capital, human rights, human capabilities), especially in relation to the power and political dynamics at work in the enactment of global gender equality in education policies in national policy spaces. This article addresses these gaps in the literature through a qualitative examination of girls' education policy in The Gambia, a country widely hailed as a leader in the promotion of gender equality in education. I use an analysis of the produced knowledge of World Bank and government documents alongside the findings from an ethnographic account of the United Nations Girls' Education Initiative (UNGEI) national launch workshop in The Gambia to illustrate my central claim that girls' education policy, on the ground, is more complex and contested than is suggested in the produced knowledge of donor and government documents. Moreover, my account of the UNGEI launch workshop serves to highlight some of the challenges and tensions associated with the global-national interface of efforts to promote gender equality in education. (Contains 15 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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