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Descriptors:
Bilingual Education; Comparative Analysis; Bilingualism; Language of Instruction; Bilingual Education Programs; Mathematics Education; High School Students; German; French; Problem Solving; Cognitive Ability; Code Switching (Language); Second Language Learning

Abstract:
Bilingual education programs implicitly assume that the acquired knowledge is represented in a language-independent way. This assumption, however, stands in strong contrast to research findings showing that information may be represented in a way closely tied to the specific language of instruction and learning. The present study aims to examine whether and to which extent cognitive costs appear during arithmetic learning when language of instruction and language of retrieving differ. Thirty-nine high school students participating in a bilingual education program underwent a four-day training on multiplication and subtraction problems in one language (German or French), followed by a test session in which they had to solve trained as well as untrained problems in both languages. We found that cognitive costs related to language switching appeared for both arithmetic operations. Implications of our findings are discussed with respect to bilingual education as well as to cognitive mechanisms underlying different arithmetic operations. (Contains 4 figures and 1 table.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
English (Second Language); Second Language Learning; Systems Approach; Japanese; Second Language Instruction; Sampling; Universities; College Students; Observation; Classroom Communication; Oral Language; Student Participation

Abstract:
Japanese language learners' proclivity for silence has been alluded to by various writers (e.g. Anderson 1993; Korst 1997; Greer 2000) and is supported by plenty of anecdotal evidence, but large-scale, empirical studies aimed at measuring the extent of macro-level silence within Japanese university L2 classrooms are notably lacking. This article responds to the gap in the literature by reporting on an extensive, multi-site study which used a structured observation methodology to investigate the classroom behaviour of 924 English language learners across nine universities. A total of 48 hours of data were collected using a minute-by-minute sampling strategy which resulted in some surprising results. Students were found to be responsible for less than one per cent of initiated talk within their classes, while over a fifth of all class time observed was characterized by no oral participation by any participants, staff, or students alike. These results are interpreted from a dynamic systems theory perspective, which suggests that silence emerges through multiple routes and has now formed a semi-permanent attractor state within the study's L2 university classrooms. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Aptitude Tests; Cognitive Ability; Native Speakers; Feedback (Response); English; Error Correction; Short Term Memory; Role; Second Language Learning; Adults; Turkish; Task Analysis

Abstract:
The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of two cognitive factors (i.e. working memory capacity [WMC] and language analytic ability [LAA]) in the extent to which L2 learners benefit from two different types of feedback (i.e. explicit correction and recasts). Forty-eight adult native speakers of English, who had no previous exposure to the target language (i.e. Turkish), were randomly assigned into explicit correction, recast, and control (no feedback) groups. Learners performed two tasks with a native speaker of Turkish where their errors on two Turkish target structures (i.e. locative and plural) were treated according to their group assignment. Oral production, comprehension, and recognition tests were used to measure learners' resulting performance. Learners' WMC and LAA were measured with the operation span task (Turner and Engle 1989) and a subtest of the LLAMA Aptitude Tests (Meara 2005), respectively. Results showed that WMC and LAA moderated the effect of feedback group on both structures. Moreover, follow-up analyses revealed that explicit correction worked better than recasts only when the learners in the compared groups had high cognitive ability (high WMC or high LAA). Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Inclusion; Discourse Analysis; Video Technology; Beginning Teachers; Language Teachers; Professional Identity; English (Second Language); Case Studies; Qualitative Research; Foreign Countries; Second Language Learning; Second Language Instruction; Self Concept; Form Classes (Languages); Language Usage; Teacher Attitudes

Abstract:
This qualitative case study explores how a novice foreign language teacher negotiated personal and professional identities and positioned herself and students in relation to classroom and broader cultural communities through pronouns. The participants included a Turkish teacher and six students at an American university. The teacher's use of pronouns "we", "you", and "they" was explored using video-recorded classroom observations and discourse analysis. The findings indicated the different ways the teacher used pronouns in the classroom to include/exclude or "invite" students into Turkish community, and how the switches between personal and professional perspectives signaled the teacher's journey towards embracing inclusive education. (Contains 8 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Teacher Motivation; English (Second Language); Second Language Learning; Language Teachers; Self Concept; Foreign Countries; Beginning Teachers; Reflection; Secondary School Teachers; Second Language Instruction; Interviews

Abstract:
This study employed possible selves theory (Markus & Nurius, 1986) to conduct an interpretive inquiry into the teaching motivation of four novice secondary school EFL teachers in Japan. The narrative analysis of the interview data revealed that the conflicts between the young teachers' different possible selves negatively affected their motivation in their early days of teaching. However, such conflicts gradually induced self-reflection in the minds of the novices, which eventually helped them reshape their self-concepts and regain their motivation. The author concludes by suggesting to related parties some measures to assist novice teachers' entry into secondary school teaching. (Contains 1 table.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Form Classes (Languages); Familiarity; Grammar; Spanish; Second Language Learning; Second Language Instruction; High School Students; Teaching Methods; Time on Task; Group Discussion; Peer Relationship; Role; Knowledge Level

Abstract:
This article documents how second language (L2) Spanish learners in an American high school formulated explicit grammar rules during three inductive lessons on the pronominal clitic "se." Following Adair-Hauck "et al." (2010), each lesson first presented a property of "se" within a narrative text, and then had learners inductively "Co-construct" grammar rules in groups of 2-3. Groups then reported back to the class, with the teacher guiding them toward a consensus. Recordings of four small groups and the whole-class discussions revealed that although successful rule formulation occurred in all three lessons, outcomes varied according to: (i) time spent on task, (ii) the distribution of turn-taking, and (iii) participants' familiarity with pertinent linguistic concepts. Variability in learners' comprehension of peer explanations was also evident, as many requested clarification from the teacher or peers. Thus, learner-generated rules were often only "subjectively accessible" to others, depending on whether references to previously learned grammatical concepts and improvised linguistic terminology could be understood. Implications for L2 pedagogy and the role of explicit knowledge in L2 acquisition are discussed. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Achievement Tests; English (Second Language); Speech Communication; Second Language Learning; Oral Language; Language Proficiency; Asians; Engineering Education; College Students; Computer Assisted Testing; Internet; Language Skills; Task Analysis; Recall (Psychology); Scores; Language Tests; Correlation

Abstract:
This study investigated the strategic behaviors that test-takers reported using when responding to integrated and independent speaking tasks in an English oral proficiency test [the Speaking Section of the Internet-based Test of English as a Foreign Language[TM] (TOEFL iBT)] and the relationship between test-takers' strategic behaviors and their test scores. Each of 30 Chinese-speaking engineering students responded to two independent and four integrated speaking tasks and provided stimulated recalls about the strategies they used when performing each task. The integrated tasks elicited a wider variety of reported strategy use than did the independent tasks. Additionally, the integrated tasks were more alike with respect to reported strategy use than were the independent and integrated tasks. Overall, we found no relationship between the total number of reported strategic behaviors and total test scores, regardless of task type. Our finding that the more skills involved in a task, the greater the reported strategy use supports the inclusion of integrated tasks in oral proficiency tests. However, the relationships between strategy use, task type, and task performance are varied and complex. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Literacy; English (Second Language); Second Language Learning; Listening Comprehension; Vocabulary; Reading Comprehension; English Language Learners; Oral Language; Grade 2; Predictor Variables; Native Language; Models; Sino Tibetan Languages; Role; Chinese Americans; Elementary School Students

Abstract:
In this paper, first language (L1) and second language (L2) oral language and word reading skills were used as predictors to devise a model of reading comprehension in young Cantonese-speaking English language learners (ELLs) in the United States. L1 and L2 language and literacy measures were collected from a total of 101 Cantonese-speaking ELLs during the early spring of second grade. Results show that English vocabulary and English word decoding, as measured with real and nonsense words, played significant roles in English reading comprehension. In particular, results highlight the crucial role of English vocabulary in the development of L2 English literacy skills. English listening comprehension did not predict English reading comprehension. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Intervention; Spelling; English (Second Language); Reading Comprehension; Beginning Reading; Second Language Learning; Native Speakers; Paraprofessional Personnel; Elementary School Students; Tutoring; Prediction; Literacy; Outcomes of Education; Grade 3; Reading Instruction; Teaching Methods

Abstract:
For 2 years we followed lower-performing English learner (EL) and native English speaking (non-EL) students who participated in an efficacy trial of a supplemental first-grade code-oriented intervention implemented by paraeducators. At the end of grade three, across all students (n = 180 of the original 187 students), treatment effects were maintained on word reading (approximate d = 0.45), spelling (0.36) and reading comprehension (0.24). However, treatment effects tended to be smaller for EL students, and were significantly smaller for spelling in particular. While pretest grade one word reading did not moderate treatment response for either ELs or non-ELs, it was found to strongly predict all three end-of- grade-three outcomes, although to a lesser extent for ELs on reading comprehension. Findings add support to previous research on the benefits of early code-oriented tutoring. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Profiles; Phonetics; Alphabets; Spelling; Kindergarten; Speech Communication; Second Language Learning; Emergent Literacy; Phonological Awareness; English Language Learners; Spanish Speaking; English (Second Language); Second Language Instruction; Multivariate Analysis; Grade 1; Correlation; Hispanic American Students

Abstract:
This study explored heterogeneity in literacy development among 2,300 Hispanic children receiving English as a Second Language (ESL) services at the start of kindergarten. Two research questions guided this work: (1) Do Spanish-speaking English language learners receiving ESL services in the fall of kindergarten demonstrate homogeneous early literacy skills, or are there distinct patterns of achievement across measures of phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, and orthography? and (2) if there are distinct profiles, to what extent do they predict literacy achievement at the end of kindergarten and the beginning of first grade? Using cluster analysis, the authors identified four distinct literacy profiles derived from fall kindergarten measures of phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, and phonetic spelling. These profiles were found to be associated with literacy outcomes in spring of kindergarten and fall of first grade. The two profiles that were associated with greater success on later measures of concept of word in text, letter sound knowledge, word reading, and spelling were the two that included stronger performance on orthographic skills (i.e., alphabet knowledge and phonetic spelling). These findings demonstrated that there is heterogeneity among Hispanic ESL students at kindergarten entry and suggested that literacy instruction must be differentiated from the very beginning in order to meet students' individual needs. The findings also suggested that orthographic skills should be assessed and taught early on. While phonological awareness may be a necessary precursor to reading, phonological awareness in the absence of orthographic skills may not be sufficient. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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