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Descriptors:
Metacognition; Recall (Psychology); Time Management; Grade 3; Grade 5; Elementary School Students; Decision Making; Learning Strategies; Performance; Cognitive Development; Child Development; Measures (Individuals)

Abstract:
Middle childhood may be crucial for the development of metacognitive monitoring and study control processes. The first three experiments, using different materials, showed that Grade 3 and Grade 5 children exhibited excellent metacognitive resolution when asked to make delayed judgments of learning (JOLs, using an analogue scale) or binary judgments of knowing (JOKs, "know" or "don't know") without the target being present. (The delayed method used here also results in excellent metacognitive resolution in adults). In three subsequent experiments after making JOLs the children were asked to choose which items they would like to restudy to optimize learning. We then either honored or dishonored the children"s restudy choices, and tested their memory performance. In Experiment 4, honoring the children"s choices made no difference to final recall performance. Experiments 5 and 6 showed that when the computer, rather than the children, chose the items for restudy based on theoretical constraints proposed by the Region of Proximal Learning model of study time allocation, the children's recall performance improved. In all three experiments, Grade 3 children's choices were random. Whereas the Grade 5 children showed some indication of a metacognitively guided strategy of choosing the lowest JOL items for study, it did not, consistently, improve performance. Apparently, accurate metacognitive monitoring is largely in place in middle childhood, but is not yet converted into effective implementation strategies. This dissociation between metaknowledge and its implementation in choice behavior needs to be taken into account by educators aiming to design interventions to enhance learning in children at this age. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Writing Processes; Protocol Analysis; Writing Research; Korean; Writing Strategies; Second Language Learning; Sociocultural Patterns; Cultural Context; Interviews; Second Language Instruction; Recall (Psychology); Learning Strategies; Case Studies; College Students

Abstract:
With the recent rise of sociocultural theory in second-language acquisition, attempts have been made to understand L2 learners' uses of different resources in writing, based on their cultural, historical, and institutional contexts. In line with L2 writing research within the sociocultural paradigm, this study investigates the writing strategies deployed by L2 learners of Korean, focusing on the mediated actions involved in their writing processes. Two American learners of Korean in a college Korean programme participated in this study. Data were collected from three sources: interviews, think-aloud protocol, and stimulated recall. Based on the analysis of data, emerging themes and trends in learner strategy use were identified for each participant. The findings are discussed case by case in relation to each individual's sociocultural context. The data reveal that a learner's socially situated context is closely related to the kinds of writing strategies and mediating tools he or she uses or prefers. (Contains 1 note.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Reflection; Teacher Attitudes; Patients; Pragmatics; Pharmacy; Focus Groups; Interpersonal Communication; Student Attitudes; Metalinguistics; English for Academic Purposes; Video Technology; Simulation; Interviews; Pharmaceutical Education; Recall (Psychology); Second Language Learning; Second Language Instruction; Language Usage

Abstract:
This article reports on a research process where focussed reflection on pharmacist-patient simulations led to meta-pragmatic awareness and directions for pedagogical practice. The research participants were third-year EAL pharmacy students, who were practising being pharmacists, and pharmacy staff members, who played the part of patients. Analysis of the students' videoed performances showed that some areas of pragmatic weakness had a negative impact on professional communication, including indirectness in advice-giving sequences. Reflection on such indirectness, the focus of this article, occurred in two stages: when the participants were interviewed after viewing their simulations and when participant focus groups were held to discuss research findings a year later. Both the stimulated recall interview and the focus group data showed the value of reflection for the students who observed and commented on the effect their language choices had on the patients, developed a meta-pragmatic language for describing and explaining these choices, and identified areas and possible strategies for language improvement. The research process also assisted pharmacy staff members to clarify their concerns regarding students' pragmatic choices and to suggest teaching activities responsive to the research data. The article illustrates how teachers and students can co-operate to develop ESP and discipline-based pedagogical practice. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Memory; Toddlers; Rewards; Cues; Spatial Ability; Infants; Task Analysis; Visual Discrimination; Brain Hemisphere Functions; Cognitive Processes; Recall (Psychology)

Abstract:
Episodic memories for autobiographical events that happen in unique spatiotemporal contexts are central to defining who we are. Yet, before 2 years of age, children are unable to form or store episodic memories for recall later in life, a phenomenon known as infantile amnesia. Here, we studied the development of allocentric spatial memory, a fundamental component of episodic memory, in two versions of a real-world memory task requiring 18 month- to 5-year-old children to search for rewards hidden beneath cups distributed in an open-field arena. Whereas children 25-42-months-old were not capable of discriminating three reward locations among 18 possible locations in absence of local cues marking these locations, children older than 43 months found the reward locations reliably. These results support previous findings suggesting that allocentric spatial memory, if present, is only rudimentary in children under 3.5 years of age. However, when tested with only one reward location among four possible locations, children 25-39-months-old found the reward reliably in absence of local cues, whereas 18-23-month-olds did not. Our findings thus show that the ability to form a basic allocentric representation of the environment is present by 2 years of age, and its emergence coincides temporally with the offset of infantile amnesia. However, the ability of children to distinguish and remember closely related spatial locations improves from 2 to 3.5 years of age, a developmental period marked by persistent deficits in long-term episodic memory known as childhood amnesia. These findings support the hypothesis that the differential maturation of distinct hippocampal circuits contributes to the emergence of specific memory processes during early childhood. (Contains 3 tables and 6 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Memory; Attention; Transfer of Training; Learning Strategies; Task Analysis; Recall (Psychology); Role; Cues; Young Children; Fatigue (Biology); Metacognition

Abstract:
Three studies examined whether strategy utilization deficiencies emerge during transfer to two tasks that differ superficially from the main task but have the same underlying structural logic. In Experiment 1, children aged 4, 4 1/2, and 5 spontaneously produced selective attention strategies (or were prompted to do so) on a selective memory task. Although children of all ages transferred this strategy, recall declined on the transfer tasks, a pattern indicating a "transfer utilization deficiency." This pattern appeared whether children were initially strategic or became strategic after prompts. Individual and trial-by-trial analyses showed asynchronies between changes in strategic behavior and recall (e.g., increased strategy production but decreased recall), which indicate a utilization deficiency. Experiment 2 demonstrated this pattern in spontaneously strategic 4-year-olds, and, by systematically varying task order, eliminated the possibility that transfer tasks were simply more difficult. Experiment 3 eliminated the role of boredom or fatigue for spontaneously strategic 4- and 5-year-olds. Transfer tasks may generate uncertainty about whether and how to apply a strategy, leading to resource-demanding self-monitoring and thus utilization deficiencies. (Contains 4 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Physics; Foreign Countries; Science Teachers; Scores; Textbooks; Undergraduate Students; Information Technology; Technology Integration; Cognitive Ability; Vocabulary Development; English for Special Purposes; Multimedia Instruction; Scientific Concepts; Recall (Psychology); Second Language Learning; Second Language Instruction

Abstract:
This study investigates whether the integration of ICT in education can facilitate teaching and learning. An example of such integration is computer assisted language learning (CALL) of English technical vocabulary by undergraduate physics students in Rwanda. The study draws on theories of cognitive load and multimedia learning to explore learning in a one-computer classroom in an environment where textbooks and multiple computers are not available. Two groups of students attended a 4-week English-language technical vocabulary course (eight three-hour sessions) taught by two ESP trained science teachers. One group (n = 13) was taught using computer-mediated multimedia to present technical vocabulary on-screen. The other group (n = 19) received blackboard presentations employing traditional methods to help students internalize the same vocabulary. Post-test scores of the two groups were compared. The results show that the effect of multimedia on the recall of the concepts taught is large (Cohen's "d" 0.95). (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Foreign Countries; French; Listening Skills; Verbs; Nouns; Second Language Learning; Metalinguistics; Learning Strategies; Second Language Instruction; Recall (Psychology); Task Analysis; Qualitative Research

Abstract:
This paper considers the issue raised in 2008 by Gillian Brown in her article "Selective listening" regarding whether nouns are "privileged" in memory over verbs during listening tasks, and whether attention to nouns, at least in the early stages of L2 learning, is a desirable strategy to be taught to learners, as Brown suggests it might be. The question of verb/noun recognition was explored in the present study using data from 30 lower-intermediate learners of French in England. Learners completed a listening task on two occasions, six months apart, producing recall protocols for short oral passages in French. We also explored learners' attentional strategy use by asking them to report on this in writing immediately after the recall task. An analysis of verbs and nouns recognised indicated that verb recognition was lower than that of nouns, and that progress in verb recognition over six months was negligible. A qualitative analysis of learners' strategy use indicated that learners with a more balanced verb/noun recognition profile took a broader focus, tending to focus their attention consciously at phrase/sentence level rather than at word level. These findings are discussed in terms of the development of listening skills over time, and the implications of this for L2 listening pedagogy. (Contains 6 tables and 4 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Evidence; Recall (Psychology); Short Term Memory; Phonology; Language Processing; Articulation (Speech); Task Analysis

Abstract:
The present study sought to clarify whether phonological similarity of encoded information impairs free recall performance (the phonological similarity effect: PSE) for nonwords. Five experiments examined the influence of the encoding process on the PSE in a step-by-step fashion, by using lists that consisted of phonologically similar (decoy) digit-(target) nonword pairs. Experiment 1 demonstrated the PSE when participants were required to recall both digits and nonwords. Experiment 2a used the same lists, but participants were required to recall either digits or nonwords (but not both). The PSE disappeared under these conditions but appeared again in Experiment 2b, in which the procedure was the same as Experiment 2a except that participants engaged in articulatory rehearsal during an 8 s recall delay. Experiment 2c replicated Experiments 2a and 2b, using a within-participants design. Experiment 3 demonstrated the PSE when participants articulated the digits as a distractor activity. These results suggest that encoding of phonologically similar items, including the re-encoding of items that is associated with rehearsal, disrupts other to-be-stored item information. This would be evidence for interference-based forgetting of item-specific information in short-term memory. (Contains 5 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Foreign Countries; Gifted; Student Characteristics; Short Term Memory; Grade 7; Middle School Students; Factor Analysis; Tests; Recognition (Psychology); Recall (Psychology); Evaluation Criteria; Cognitive Processes

Abstract:
The outstandingly able learner has been conceptualised, in terms of test and examination performance, as the learner showing superior academic performance which is markedly better than that of peers and in ways regarded as of value by wider society. In Kuwait, such superior examination performance leads to a classification regarded as being "gifted". This study looks at the inter-correlations between performance in various subjects in examinations and then considers how examination performance correlates with measures of working memory capacity, extent of field dependency, extent of divergency and visual-spatial abilities. A very large sample of grade 7 Kuwaiti students (aged approximately 13) was involved, the sample being selected in such a way that it contained a high proportion of those regarded as "gifted" under the procedures used in Kuwait. While specific learner characteristics have been related to examination performance, this study brings four different characteristics together to gain a picture of the way these characteristics may be seen in those who perform extremely well in examinations. Principal components analysis using varimax rotation, was used to look at the examination data and one factor accounted for 87% of the variance. A consideration of the examination papers led to the conclusion that the national examinations tested only recall-recognition. It was also found that those who performed best in all six subjects tended to be those who are highly divergent and strongly visual-spatial as well as those tending to have higher working memory capacities and being more field independent. The inter-correlations between the various learner characteristics are explained in terms of the way the brain is known to process information. The implications of the findings for assessment and for the way high ability is considered are discussed. (Contains 11 tables and 2 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Teacher Collaboration; Middle School Teachers; Science Teachers; English Teachers; English (Second Language); Middle School Students; Teaching Methods; Reading Fluency; Group Activities; Direct Instruction; Vocabulary; Metacognition; Writing Skills; Nonfiction; Recall (Psychology); Case Studies; Foreign Countries

Abstract:
This study will examine strategies that ESL teachers and content teachers can use to help middle school ESL students acquire science vocabulary and meta-cognitive strategies for writing skills in non-fiction text forms. Two appendixes are included. (Contains 3 figures and 2 footnotes.)

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