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Descriptors:
Memory; Teaching Methods; Foreign Countries; Correlation; Chinese; Visual Perception; Reading Research; Meta Analysis; Effect Size; Reading Skills; Reading Processes; Verbal Ability; Elementary School Students

Abstract:
This paper used meta-analysis to synthesize the relation between visual skills and Chinese reading acquisition based on the empirical results from 34 studies published from 1991 to 2011. We obtained 234 correlation coefficients from 64 independent samples, with a total of 5,395 participants. The meta-analysis revealed that visual skills as a global construct had a medium correlation effect size (r = 0.32) associated with Chinese reading acquisition. The various visual processing skills differed in their relation to Chinese reading acquisition in different stages. Visual perception, speed of processing visual information, and pure visual memory had low-to-moderate correlations with Chinese reading acquisition in the lower grades (i.e., below second grade), whereas these relations did not retain their magnitude for children in the higher grades (i.e., second through sixth grades). By contrast, visual-verbal association skill was found to account for 34 and 41 % of the variance in children's Chinese reading acquisition in both lower and higher grade levels, respectively. Greater attention to this construct can significantly benefit reading research and instructional practice. No regional differences between studies in Mainland China and Hong Kong were found in the meta-analysis. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Language Tests; Reading Processes; Reading Tests; Test Format; Integrated Activities; Reading Comprehension; Language Usage; Writing (Composition); English for Academic Purposes; Test Validity; Cognitive Processes; Foreign Students; English Language Learners; College Students

Abstract:
Integrated reading/writing tasks are becoming more common in large-scale language tests. Much of the research on these tasks has focused on writing through reading; assessing reading through writing is a less explored area. In this article we describe a reading-into-writing task that is intended to measure both reading comprehension and language use on an academic English test. The task involves responding to short-answer questions (SAQs) that require examinees to use their own words to state the main idea of a text, draw inferences, or synthesize information across multiple texts. The article presents results of a two-part study addressing the validity of this method of assessing reading by investigating the cognitive processes involved in responding to SAQs. First, we present the results of a qualitative study of five nonnative English-speaking students, who provided verbal protocols as they read the texts and responded to the SAQs. Next, we present data from a larger sample of students focusing specifically on the cognitive processes used when reading the texts for the purpose of responding to SAQs. Implications of the study for the validity of this method of testing are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Writing (Composition); Synthesis; Reading Comprehension; European History; Reading Processes; Writing Processes; Secondary School Students; Case Studies; Foreign Countries

Abstract:
The case study reported here explores the processes involved in producing a written synthesis of three history texts and their possible relation to the characteristics of the texts produced and the degree of comprehension achieved following the task. The processes carried out by 10 final-year compulsory education students (15 and 16 years old) to produce their syntheses, including the integrations they verbalized while performing the task, were examined in detail with a double-analysis system. The results revealed a tendency for the students who engaged in more elaborative patterns to make more integrations and produce better texts. These students seemed to benefit more from the task in terms of comprehension. Conversely, the students who followed a more reproductive pattern by and large copied ideas from the source texts and achieved low levels of comprehension. (Contains 6 tables and 1 note.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Instructional Effectiveness; Reading Achievement; Evidence; Outcome Measures; Reading; Auditory Training; Reading Fluency; Reading Processes; Reading Comprehension; Reading Skills; Reading Difficulties; Intervention; Phonological Awareness; Reading Instruction; Adolescents; Reading Programs; Program Effectiveness

Abstract:
"SpellRead"[TM], formerly known as "SpellRead Phonological Auditory Training"[R], is a small-group literacy program for struggling readers in grades 2-12. "SpellRead"[TM] integrates the auditory and visual aspects of the reading process and emphasizes specific skill mastery through systematic and explicit instruction. Students are taught to recognize and manipulate English sounds; to practice, apply, and transfer their skills using texts at their reading level; and to write about their reading. The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) identified 14 studies on the effects of "SpellRead"[TM] on the reading achievement of adolescent readers. Two studies (Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001; Torgesen et al., 2006) are randomized controlled trials that meet WWC evidence standards without reservations. These two studies are summarized in this report. The remaining 12 studies do not meet either WWC eligibility screens or evidence standards. Appended are: (1) Research details for Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001 and Torgesen et al. (2006); (2) Outcome measures for each domain; (3) Findings included in the rating for the alphabetics domain, reading fluency domain, and comprehension domain; and (4) Supplemental findings for the alphabetics domain, reading fluency domain, and comprehension domain. A glossary of terms is included. (Contains 7 tables, 9 endnotes and 1 additional source.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Age Differences; Older Adults; Reading Comprehension; Sentences; Verbs; Eye Movements; Role; Grammar; Young Adults; Reading Processes; Discourse Analysis; Computer Assisted Testing; Vocabulary; Language Tests; Foreign Countries

Abstract:
Eye tracking was used to explore the role of grammatical aspect and world knowledge in establishing temporal relationships across sentences in discourse. Younger and older adult participants read short passages that included sentences such as "Mrs. Adams was knitting/knitted a new sweater"..."She wore her new garment...". Readers had greater difficulty processing the second event ("She wore...") if it followed the imperfective ("was knitting") rather than the perfective ("knitted") version of the earlier-mentioned event. This suggests that aspect information is encoded online and that the "in progress" interpretation of the imperfective impeded integration of the second event into the discourse model. However, world knowledge modulated the effect: When the first event was of short duration (e.g., writing a check), the influence of aspect was not evident in the early moments of processing. These effects were independent of age group, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in coordinating temporal information in discourse are stable across the adult lifespan. (Contains 3 tables, 1 figure, and 2 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Familiarity; Word Recognition; Sentences; Eye Movements; Vocabulary Development; Reading Processes; Word Frequency; Age; Theories; Undergraduate Students; Task Analysis

Abstract:
Researchers have demonstrated that words with high numbers of features (NOF) are recognized more quickly than words with low NOF. One difficulty in testing theories of word recognition with paradigms that present words in isolation, however, is that these paradigms can produce task demands not present in naturalistic reading situations. Extending previous research on this topic, we embedded high and low NOF words in neutral sentences that participants read as their eye movements were monitored. We investigated how NOF and four other variables known to affect word recognition (frequency, age of acquisition, familiarity, and length) influenced word reading time. This is the first experiment to demonstrate NOF effects on eye fixations during reading. (Contains 1 table.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Brain Hemisphere Functions; Diagnostic Tests; Linguistic Theory; Verbs; Validity; Models; Pragmatics; Discourse Analysis; Reading Processes; Concept Formation; Language Processing; Statistical Analysis

Abstract:
We used ERP methodology to investigate how readers validate discourse concepts and update situation models when those concepts followed factive (e.g., knew) and nonfactive (e.g., "guessed") verbs, and also when they were true, false, or indeterminate with reference to previous discourse. Following factive verbs, early (P2) and later brain components (N400 and late frontal positivity) revealed that relative to true concepts, both false and indeterminate concepts were more difficult to validate, and only indeterminate concepts were ultimately updated into the situation model. Following nonfactive verbs, there was no evidence of situational model updating for any condition. However, there was a clear N400 gradient that suggests the lower commitment of nonfactive verbs leads to less incongruence with discourse context for the indeterminate condition than the false condition. These results provide novel insight into how pragmatic constraints afforded by verbs influence discourse validation and the updating of situation models. (Contains 2 tables, 3 figures, and 2 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Oral Language; Phonemes; Phonology; Decision Making; Phoneme Grapheme Correspondence; Korean; Reading Processes; Comparative Analysis; Word Recognition

Abstract:
Reading a word may involve the spoken language in two ways: in the conversion of letters to phonemes according to the conventions of the language's writing system and the assimilation of phonemes according to the language's constraints on speaking. If so, then words that require assimilation when uttered would require a change in the phonemes produced by grapheme-phoneme conversion when read. In two experiments, each involving 40 fluent readers, we compared visual lexical decision on Korean orthographic forms that would require such a change (C stimuli) or not (NC stimuli). We found that NC words were accepted faster than C words, and C nonwords were rejected faster than NC nonwords. The results suggest that phoneme-to-phoneme transformations involved in uttering a word may also be involved in visually identifying the word. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Language Processing; Preschool Children; Sentences; Japanese; Adults; Pictorial Stimuli; Task Analysis; Grammar; Psycholinguistics; Computer Assisted Testing; Reading Processes

Abstract:
This study investigates the on-line processing of scrambled sentences in Japanese by preschool children and adults using a combination of self-paced listening and speeded picture selection tasks. The effects of a filler-gap dependency, reversibility, and case markers were examined. The results show that both children and adults had difficulty in comprehending scrambled sentences when they were provided as reversible sentences. The reversibility effect was significant for children, whereas the interaction of reversibility and a filler-gap dependency was significant for adults. However, this does not indicate that children's parsing is fundamentally different from that of adults. For those children who processed the nominative and accusative case markers equally fast, the reactivation of the dislocated constituent was observed in the gap position. These results suggest that children's processing is basically the same as adults' in that their sentence processing is incremental and they parse a gap to form a filler-gap dependency. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Foreign Countries; Grade 6; Reading Materials; Science Materials; Layout (Publications); Eye Movements; Instructional Effectiveness; Cognitive Processes; Reading Processes; Visual Aids; Printed Materials; Teaching Methods; Illustrations

Abstract:
This study investigated the effects of reading a science text illustrated by either a labeled or unlabeled picture. Both the online process of reading the text and the offline conceptual learning from the text were examined. Eye-tracking methodology was used to trace text and picture processing through indexes of first- and second-pass reading or inspection. Fifty-six sixth graders were randomly assigned to one of three reading conditions (text with a labeled illustration, text with an unlabeled illustration, or text only) in a pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest design. Results showed no differences for factual knowledge as a function of reading condition. However, for the transfer of knowledge at both posttests, readers of the text with the labeled illustration outperformed readers in the other two conditions, who did not differentiate from each other. Eye-fixation data showed that the labeled illustration promoted more integrative processing of the learning material, as revealed by the time spent refixating text segments while reinspecting the illustration. In addition, relations emerged between the indexes of integration of text and picture during online processing and the offline measures of factual knowledge and transfer of knowledge. Overall, in accordance with the theoretical assumptions of the multimedia principle, the study underlines the crucial role of integrative processing of words and graphics to sustain learning from illustrated text. Moreover, the study indicates that this integrative processing can be effectively supported by appropriate visual signaling. (Contains 2 figures, 3 tables and 2 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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