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Descriptors:
Educational Change; Grammar; Models; Language Usage; Pragmatics; Language Research; Language Classification; Discourse Analysis; Context Effect

Abstract:
The Functional Discourse Grammar model has a twofold objective: on the one hand, to provide a descriptively, psychologically and pragmatically adequate account of the forms made available by a typologically diverse range of languages; and on the other, to provide a model of language which is set up to reflect, at one remove, certain of the stages the analyst assumes the speaker would go through in producing such forms, in terms of the types of discourse acts that may be performed in so doing. The article argues that these goals do not sit easily the one with the other. In practice, the whole emphasis of the levels, components and modules provided by the grammar is designed to achieve only the first of the two objectives. The Contextual component is restricted to representing only those aspects of the context of a given utterance which have a systematic influence on the form of that utterance. So in practice, the analytic approximation to the speaker's performance of discourse act types is far removed from the complexity of the contextual factors which impinge on his or her actual utterance acts in some specific context. The problem is compounded by the lack of any systematic differentiation between considerations relating to the language system, and those having to do with the use of that system in some context. The need to provide for such a distinction is motivated here by a consideration of various types of indexical reference (specifically, "anadeixis" and anaphora) within a discourse. Here an important distinction is made between the nature of the indexical referring procedure being applied, and the particular expression types being used to carry it out. "In fine", the article argues that it is only by attempting to subsume the grammatical apparatus of the modular FDG system within a model of the wider utterance context in which it may be used by a speaker, that the problems raised earlier may be satisfactorily resolved. (Contains 2 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Prediction; Photography; Discriminant Analysis; Language Patterns; Models; Gender Differences; Aesthetics; Communication Skills; Interpersonal Competence; Social Cognition; Writing (Composition); Coding; Language Usage; Sex Stereotypes; Sexual Identity

Abstract:
The gender-linked language effect (GLLE) is a phenomenon in which transcripts of female communicators are rated higher on Socio-Intellectual Status and Aesthetic Quality and male communicators are rated higher on Dynamism. This study proposed and tested a new general process model explanation for the GLLE, a central mediating element of which posits that males and females have socialized schema of how each gender normatively communicates. Participants described five landscape photographs in writing. Participants were asked to describe the first photograph with no other instructions. The next four randomly ordered photos were described under two guises: "as if you were a man," and "as if you were a woman." Under both gender guises, participants described the photograph "to a man" and "to a woman." Transcripts were coded for gender-distinguishing language features. Discriminant analysis indicated that the language used by male and female respondents in the male guise differed from that used by the same respondents in the female guise, supporting communicators' consistent gender-linked language schemata, and stereotypes, and the new process model. While the data supported the new gender-linked language model, no effects were found for predictions also made regarding communication accommodation or gender identity salience. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Language Planning; Language Attitudes; Public Policy; Language Variation; Language Usage; Behavior Patterns; Values; Social Problems; Problem Solving; Civil Rights

Abstract:
In this article, the author applies Makiguchi Tsunesaburo's (1871-1944) perspectives to language policy and planning (LPP). One theoretical question in LPP theory is why individuals opt to use particular languages and varieties of languages in certain contexts. The author contends that Makiguchi's theory of value can be used to systematically explain behavior in language choice by understanding language choice as value-seeking behavior. The author also considers practical implications of Makiguchi's ideas to solve social issues related to LPP. These practical implications include value creation and attitude to deal with the issues of language choice, educational applications, and emphasis on the local community. (Contains 1 footnote.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Reading; Essay Tests; Language Tests; Integrated Activities; English (Second Language); Undergraduate Students; Language Usage; Syntax; Grammar; Accuracy; Language Fluency; Information Sources; Statistical Analysis; Foreign Countries

Abstract:
As a growing number of testing programs use integrated writing tasks, more validation research is needed to inform stakeholders about score use and interpretation. The current study investigates the relationship between writing proficiency and discourse features in an integrated reading-writing task. At a Middle Eastern university, 136 undergraduate students completed a reading-based writing task. The essays were holistically scored by two raters and then classified into three proficiency levels. In addition, the essays were analyzed for a number of discourse features, including fluency, lexical sophistication, syntactic complexity, grammatical accuracy, verbatim source use, and direct and indirect source use. A one-way analysis of variance was employed to look into the relationship between writing proficiency and the discourse features of interest. The results yielded significant differences across proficiency levels for a number of discourse features. Nonetheless, follow-up comparisons indicated that the differences were greater between the lowest level and the two upper levels. As for the upper levels, no statistically significant differences were found between these two levels for most of the discourse features. The implications of the study suggest that the selected discourse features play a major role at lower levels, whereas other textual features, such as cohesion, content, and organization, are more critical at higher level writing. The results also support the need in a construct of integrated writing for the inclusion of reading proficiency and knowledge about discourse synthesis. (Contains 7 tables, 1 figure and 3 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Documentation; Writing Tests; Language Usage; Language Tests; English (Second Language); Expertise; Educational Research; Evaluation Criteria

Abstract:
This article reports the lexical diversity of summaries written by experts and test takers in an empirical study and then interrogates the (in)congruity between the conceptualisations of "summary" and "summarize" in the literature of educational research and the operationalization of summarization tasks in three international English language tests in relation to their task directions and assessment criteria. These analyses show that summarization is not a uniform construct; rather, it is multidimensional in terms of its purposes, functions, and practices in real-life contexts, and as a consequence not particularly well operationalized in language tests and so in need of precise definitions for specific assessment contexts. This conclusion has implications for designing summarization tasks and assessing task performance. First, clear and transparent task directions are essential to ensure that test takers and evaluators share a common understanding of a test task; test takers need to be instructed what kind of summary they are expected to produce, particularly what information to include and to exclude. Second, because summarization may well be a unique type of writing process, it is important to employ parameters different from and additional to those for independent composition writing in order to measure the quality of a summary effectively. (Contains 4 tables and 3 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Language Tests; Reading Processes; Reading Tests; Test Format; Integrated Activities; Reading Comprehension; Language Usage; Writing (Composition); English for Academic Purposes; Test Validity; Cognitive Processes; Foreign Students; English Language Learners; College Students

Abstract:
Integrated reading/writing tasks are becoming more common in large-scale language tests. Much of the research on these tasks has focused on writing through reading; assessing reading through writing is a less explored area. In this article we describe a reading-into-writing task that is intended to measure both reading comprehension and language use on an academic English test. The task involves responding to short-answer questions (SAQs) that require examinees to use their own words to state the main idea of a text, draw inferences, or synthesize information across multiple texts. The article presents results of a two-part study addressing the validity of this method of assessing reading by investigating the cognitive processes involved in responding to SAQs. First, we present the results of a qualitative study of five nonnative English-speaking students, who provided verbal protocols as they read the texts and responded to the SAQs. Next, we present data from a larger sample of students focusing specifically on the cognitive processes used when reading the texts for the purpose of responding to SAQs. Implications of the study for the validity of this method of testing are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Foreign Countries; Pragmatics; Korean; Second Language Learning; Second Language Instruction; Teaching Methods; Language Styles; Multimedia Instruction; Cultural Traits; Consciousness Raising; Language Usage; Undergraduate Students; Learning Activities; Television; Programming (Broadcast)

Abstract:
This article reports on the design, implementation and evaluation of an activity used to teach non-honorific speech styles through multimedia to a class of intermediate learners at a university in Europe. Although much emphasis has been placed in Korean language learning and teaching on the importance of honorific styles, my article reveals that this at times has come at the expense of ignoring the other side of the coin: non-honorific language. Indeed, Korean language teaching materials delay the teaching of non-honorific language to intermediate level and then only deal with them in a perfunctory way. This is unfortunate as the pragmatics of non-honorific styles can be complex and learners frequently encounter these styles outside of class, even when their Korean level is rudimentary. I argue that this lack of emphasis on non-honorific language is not limited to Korean but represents a common tendency within language pedagogy to avoid language that is considered "casual" or "impolite". With traditional teaching materials doing a poor job at representing these facets of language use, the solution I put forward is the use of multimedia activities. These activities are designed specifically to raise consciousness of the pragmatic factors influencing the use of non-honorific styles. (Contains 1 table, 1 figure and 10 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Foreign Countries; Reflection; Web Sites; Electronic Publishing; Social Distance; Nationalism; Self Concept; English (Second Language); Second Language Learning; Language Role; Cultural Awareness; Role; Computer Mediated Communication; Language Usage; Language Variation; Semiotics; Teaching Methods; Intercultural Communication; Secondary School Students

Abstract:
The rise of English as an international language (EIL) has brought to light the needs of those who speak it as an additional language. This has in turn radically reshaped the role of culture in the EIL classroom, which may now aim at developing critical transcultural awareness. By reporting on a joint initiative undertaken by three schools in two countries, the "EIL in Poland and Spain" blog project, this article explores how a transcultural curricular approach could be implemented in the EIL classroom with particular reference to computer-mediated communication (CMC) that might lead to the creation of virtual "third spaces". Results show that, upon task-induced reflection, participants (1) overwhelmingly acknowledge the power of the othering discourses which are central to national identity; (2) bond together through (2.1) widespread usage of the same register in English and CMC-standard non-verbal semiotic codes and (2.2) similar subcultural (yet transnational) affiliations; and (3) may be seen to develop some critical awareness of their place in the world beyond their respective national borders. Finally, the pedagogical implications of a tool through which youth appears as a meaningful cross-cultural experience, bringing both Polish and Spanish participants together as critical thinkers through EIL, are discussed. (Contains 1 table and 7 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Listening Comprehension Tests; Language Variation; Second Language Learning; English (Second Language); Foreign Countries; Listening Comprehension; Language Usage; Language Tests; English for Academic Purposes; Native Speakers; Testing

Abstract:
The existence of different varieties of English in target language use (TLU) domains calls into question the usefulness of listening comprehension tests whose input is limited only to a native speaker variety. This study investigated the impact of non-native varieties or accented English speech on test takers from three different English use contexts: Korea, Sri Lanka and Brazil. The findings showed that the variety of English or accented speech used had no impact on test taker's performance on a listening test for academic purposes. Also test takers from the three different countries performed similarly even when the speakers shared the same native languages as the test takers. Despite these findings students still perceived that a native variety of English should be used in listening comprehension tests. Though the study suggests the use of non-native varieties as test input, it also raises questions of fairness in the use of such varieties. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Immigrants; Latin Americans; Foreign Countries; Multilingualism; Language Variation; English (Second Language); Spanish; Romance Languages; Language Usage; Self Concept; Metropolitan Areas; Secondary School Students; Socialization

Abstract:
Since the end of the last century, more than 10% of students in Catalonia's schools are immigrants, mostly concentrated in areas of Catalonia where the population speaks Castilian in everyday life. Although these newcomers are educated in Catalan, the majority use diverse varieties of Spanish as their language of everyday communication. In the case of students from Latin America, it is possible to observe the emergence of a new repertoire that shares traits of different varieties of Spanish spoken in South America. This article focuses on the hybrid features of this repertoire, its transmission among peers, and also on the way teachers categorize and value it. The research results reveal that students develop multilingual abilities to fulfill practical goals. The data also show that varieties of vernacular Catalan and Spanish are articulated with a new Latino language repertoire in a complex set of resources in which linguistic forms of various origins are mixed. The uses of this hybrid repertoire can be related to key issues such as the speaker's stance regarding school, but also to symbolic aspects of broader processes, such as the re-territorialization of languages and people and the emergence of new processes of identity construction in a multilingual and cosmopolitan city. (Contains 4 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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