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Descriptors:
Literacy; Books; Clubs; Student Reaction; Literacy Education; Reading Comprehension; Childrens Literature; Elementary School Students; Elementary School Teachers; Reading; Reading Instruction; Grade 2; Grade 3; Early Childhood Education; Emergent Literacy; Writing Instruction; Childrens Writing

Abstract:
This article positions a view of student responses with relation to current literacy expectations. Student responses to a single book, "The Egypt Game," are explored. The responses are analysed from a group and individual student perspectives. The responses demonstrate the complex understandings that young students created about this book. Connections to current classroom practices are explored. (Contains 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Literacy Education; English (Second Language); Second Language Learning; English Language Learners; Classrooms; Elementary School Science; Science Curriculum; Literacy; Science Education; Science Instruction; Grade 2; Grade 3; Elementary School Students; Instructional Materials; Teaching Methods; Scientific Concepts

Abstract:
Although literacy plays a large role in elementary science classrooms, one thing that offers a challenge for educators is meeting the linguistic needs of English language learners (ELLs) while also meeting their content needs. An additional challenge is ensuring that academic literacy extends beyond the classroom. This article presents ways of extending classroom literacy into the home. The suggestions and activities emphasize literacy strategies appropriate for ELLs as well as English-speaking students. (Contains 4 figures and 9 resources.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Phonemes; Vowels; Reading Fluency; Generalization; Elementary School Students; Grade 2; Accuracy; Word Lists; Novelty (Stimulus Dimension); Phonemic Awareness; Intervention

Abstract:
We examined the generalized effects of training children to fluently blend phonemes of words containing target vowel teams on their reading of trained and untrained words in lists and passages. Three second-grade students participated. A subset of words containing each of 3 target vowel teams ("aw," "oi," and "au") was trained in lists, and generalization was assessed to untrained words in lists, trained and untrained words in target passages, and novel words in generalization passages. A multiple probe design across vowel teams revealed generalized increases in oral reading accuracy for target words presented in both lists and passages for all 3 students on 2 vowel teams and for 1 student on all 3 vowel teams. Generalized increases in oral reading fluency in both lists and passages were found for all 3 students on the vowel team that was trained to a fluency criterion, with two students showing increases prior to training on the other two vowel teams. Implications of these results for building fluency in prerequisite phonemic awareness skills as an intervention for promoting generalized oral reading fluency are discussed. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Gifted; Identification; Cognitive Ability; Intelligence; Screening Tests; Talent Development; Predictive Validity; Disproportionate Representation; Grade 2; Comparative Analysis; English Language Learners; Kindergarten; Grade 1; Correlation; Effect Size; Scores; Elementary School Students

Abstract:
The Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test, Second Edition (NNAT2), is used widely to screen students for possible inclusion in talent development programs. The NNAT2 claims to provide a more culturally neutral evaluation of general ability than tests such as Form 6 of the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT6), which has Verbal and Quantitative batteries in addition to a Nonverbal battery. This study compared the performance of 5,833 second graders who took the CogAT6 and 4,038 kindergartners, first graders, and second graders who took the NNAT2 between 2005 and 2011 as part of a grade-wide screening for a gifted program. Comparison between minorities and Whites on the CogAT6 and the NNAT2 found slightly larger gaps on the CogAT6 Composite for Hispanics and English-Language Learners (ELL) but the same gap for Black students. Considered alone, the Nonverbal battery of CogAT6 produced smaller gaps than the NNAT2 for Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and ELL students. Fisher's exact tests showed no significant differences between the CogAT6 Composite and the NNAT2 in subgroup identification rates at hypothetical cuts for gifted identification (top 20%, 10%, or 5%), except for Asian and ELL students. The CogAT6 Nonverbal score appeared to identify as many or more high-ability students from underrepresented groups as the NNAT2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition, follow-up on the top 5% showed greater predictive validity for the CogAT6 Composite. These results suggest that gifted programs should not assume that using a figural screening test such as the NNAT2, without other adjustments to selection protocol, will address minority underrepresentation. (Contains 5 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Literacy; Foreign Countries; Control Groups; Phonemes; Rhyme; Reading Instruction; Computer Assisted Instruction; Reading; Intervention; Comparative Analysis; Reading Difficulties; Young Children; Literacy Education; Spelling; Phoneme Grapheme Correspondence; Phonics; Phonemic Awareness; Phonological Awareness; Effect Size; Pretests Posttests; Grade 2; Elementary School Students

Abstract:
We report an empirical comparison of the effectiveness of two theoretically motivated computer-assisted reading interventions (CARI) based on the Finnish GraphoGame CARI: English GraphoGame Rime (GG Rime) and English GraphoGame Phoneme (GG Phoneme). Participants were 6-7-year-old students who had been identified by their teachers as being relatively poor at reading. The students were divided into three groups. Two of the groups played one of the games as a supplement to normal classroom literacy instruction for five sessions per week for a period of 12 weeks. The third group formed an untreated control. Both games led to gains in reading, spelling, and phonological skills in comparison with the untreated control group. The two interventions also had some differential effects. The intervention gains were maintained at a four-month follow-up. (Contains 4 tables, 2 figures, and 1 note.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Core Curriculum; State Standards; Alignment (Education); Grade 2; Grade 3; Elementary Education; Language Arts; Beginning Reading; Reader Text Relationship; Difficulty Level; Reading Achievement; Pattern Recognition; Readability Formulas; Word Frequency

Abstract:
The Common Core Standards for the English Language Arts (CCSS) provide explicit guidelines matching grade-level bands (e.g., 2-3, 4-5) with targeted text complexity levels. The CCSS staircase accelerates text expectations for students across Grades 2-12 in order to close a gap in the complexity of texts typically used in high school and those of college and career. The first step of the band at second and third grades is examined because it marks the entry into the staircase and a critical developmental juncture. In this article, we examine the theoretical and empirical support for three assumptions that underlie the acceleration of text complexity in Grades 2-3. Then we identify patterns in American reading achievement and instruction to illustrate the potential and far-reaching consequences of an increase in the first step of the CCSS staircase. (Contains 1 figure and 2 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Academic Achievement; Teacher Effectiveness; Reading Fluency; Educational Research; Grade 3; Grade 1; Twins; Comparative Analysis; Models; Oral Reading; Reading; Grade 2; Elementary School Students; Inferences; Experiments; Scores; Quasiexperimental Design; Measures (Individuals)

Abstract:
This study introduces a co-twin control method commonly used in the medical literature but not often within educational research. This method allows for a comparison of twins discordant for an "exposure," approximating alternative outcomes in the counterfactual model. Example analyses use data drawn from the Florida Twin Project on Reading to determine whether exposure to "teacher quality," measured by growth in oral reading fluency (ORF) scores of classmates, causally affects ORF performance of twins in the subsequent years. The analysis highlights PROC MIXED in SAS, including a novel expansion to allow for the nested data. Results from 2,788 twins suggested that being in classrooms with lower teacher quality in first grade leads to lower ORF scores in second and third grade with little indication of possible genetic or environmental confounding. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
School Personnel; Reading Fluency; Emergent Literacy; Psychometrics; Equated Scores; Grade 2; Oral Reading; Elementary School Students; Factor Analysis; Measurement; Scores; Comparative Analysis; Error of Measurement; True Scores; Test Construction; Curriculum Based Assessment; Literacy; Validity; Reading Instruction; Reading Programs

Abstract:
Lack of psychometric equivalence of oral reading fluency (ORF) passages used within a grade for screening and progress monitoring has recently become an issue with calls for the use of equating methods to ensure equivalence. To investigate the nature of the nonequivalence and to guide the choice of equating method to correct for nonequivalence, the authors fit linear and nonlinear confirmatory factor analytic measurement models to Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) second-grade ORF passages routinely used for spring testing. They found evidence of nonlinear relations among passage scores that indicated equipercentile equating would be the best choice of equating method compared with mean or linear equating. The standard error of equating (SEE) with a sample of 600 participants was acceptable and less then two correct words per minute for equated scores from 0 to 150, which covers 95% and the useful range of scores. Consistent with the small SEE, the equating table also successfully removed all form differences in an independent sample of second graders. Given the widespread adoption of DIBELS in thousands of schools serving millions of students, equating all passages within a grade would substantially improve the quality of the tool and dramatically lower the assessment burden on school personnel. (Contains 5 tables and 5 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Writing Skills; Written Language; Writing Instruction; Special Needs Students; Response to Intervention; Longitudinal Studies; Experimental Groups; Control Groups; Comparative Analysis; Outcome Measures; Small Group Instruction; At Risk Students; Achievement Tests; Lesson Plans; Grade 2; Grade 1; Grade 3

Abstract:
In a randomized controlled trial, 205 students were followed from grades 1 to 3 with a focus on changes in their writing trajectories following an evidence-based intervention during the spring of second grade. Students were identified as being at-risk (n = 138), and then randomized into treatment (n = 68) versus business-as-usual conditions (n = 70). A typical group also was included (n = 67). The writing intervention comprised Lesson Sets 4 and 7 from the Process Assessment of the Learner (PAL), and was conducted via small groups (three to six students) twice a week for 12 weeks in accordance with a response-to-intervention Tier 2 model. The primary outcome was the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II Written Expression Scale. Results indicated modest support for the PAL lesson plans, with an accelerated rate of growth in writing skills following treatment. There were no significant moderator effects, although there was evidence that the most globally impaired students demonstrated a more rapid rate of growth following treatment. These findings suggest the need for ongoing examination of evidence-based treatments in writing for young elementary students. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Animals; Visual Stimuli; Pictorial Stimuli; Psychometrics; Reaction Time; Grade 2; Grade 4; Elementary School Students; Gender Differences; Cognitive Ability; Task Analysis; Geometric Concepts

Abstract:
In contrast to the well documented male advantage in psychometric mental rotation tests, gender differences in chronometric experimental designs are still under dispute. Therefore, a systematic investigation of gender differences in mental rotation performance in primary-school children is presented in this paper. A chronometric mental rotation task was used to test 449 second and fourth graders. The children were tested in three separate groups each with different stimulus material (animal drawings, letters, or cube figures). The results show that chronometric mental rotation tasks with cube figures--even rotated in picture plane only--were too difficult for children in both age groups. Further analyses with animal drawings and letters as stimuli revealed an overall gender difference in response time (RT) favoring males, an increasing RT with increasing angular disparity for all children, and faster RTs for fourth graders compared to second graders. This is the first study which has shown consistent gender differences in chronometric mental rotation with primary school aged children regarding reaction time and accuracy while considering appropriate stimuli. (Contains 3 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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