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Descriptors:
Student Attitudes; Vocational Schools; Problem Solving; Causal Models; Remedial Programs; Teaching Methods; Educational Practices; Interviews; Formative Evaluation; Intervention; Portfolio Assessment; Observation; Pretests Posttests; Educational Strategies

Abstract:
The authors designed instruments from theories and literatures. Data were collected throughout remedial teaching processes and interviewed with vocational school students. By SOLO (structure of the observed learning outcome) taxonomy, the authors made the UMR (unistructural-multistructural-relational sequence) conception cycle of the formative and development of linear equation about the learners under equality axiom. (Contains 5 tables and 2 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Violence; Conflict; Death; Causal Models; Intervention; Psychological Patterns; Attitudes; Responses; Leadership; Power Structure; Bias; Cultural Influences; Mythology; Risk

Abstract:
Acts of deadly violence give rise to powerful emotions and trigger pre-programmed responses that often cause affected persons, including leaders, media, armed forces, and the general public, to act in ways that aggravate the situation and feed into cycles of violence. In this article, a model of the cycle of violence is presented that facilitates logical analysis and response. Starting from an act of deadly violence this model traces a series of interacting factors that can lead to armed conflict. These include distortions of perception and response that impact the public and their leaders. Negative codes, prejudices, and myths feed fear and grief, which may then escalate and lead to violent retaliation thereby triggering a similar response. Those professionals who care for bereaved individuals and families are familiar with these emotions and responses and are well qualified to analyze, explain, and support people affected by armed conflict. We suggest that they could also play educational and other important roles in reducing escalation and breaking the cycle of violence. (Contains 2 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Student Motivation; Program Effectiveness; Achievement Need; Grade 7; Grade 8; Academic Achievement; Foreign Countries; Questionnaires; Goal Orientation; Self Concept; Causal Models; Achievement Gains

Abstract:
The motivational effects of mastery goals and performance goals have been widely documented in previous research on achievement motivation. However, recent studies have increasingly indicated a need to include social goals so as to gain a more comprehensive understanding of achievement motivation. The purpose of the present research was to examine how social goals predicted achievement motivation among students with different self-construals (independent versus interdependent). In Study 1, 134 Chinese 8th graders completed a questionnaire on self-construal, social goals, and avoidance behaviors. In Study 2, the causal effect of self-construal and social goals on students' willingness to take a course for improvement after failure was examined with experimental manipulation. Participants were 121 Chinese 7th graders. Results demonstrated that social goals yielded higher report of avoidance behaviors (Study 1) and lower willingness to improve after failure (Study 2) for students with independent self-construal, but lower report of avoidance behaviors (Study 1) and higher willingness to improve after failure (Study 2) for those with interdependent self-construal. The research sheds light on the theoretical framework of achievement motivation that goes beyond mastery and performance goals. (Contains 2 figures and 4 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Cartoons; Autism; Asperger Syndrome; Punishment; Intention; Causal Models; Moral Values; Cognitive Processes; Pervasive Developmental Disorders; Aggression; Injuries; Responsibility; Discipline; Adults; Comparative Analysis

Abstract:
In the present study, we investigated the ability to assign moral responsibility and punishment in adults with high functioning autism or Asperger Syndrome (HFA/AS), using non-verbal cartoons depicting an aggression, an accidental harm or a mere coincidence. Participants were asked to evaluate the agent's causal and intentional roles, his responsibility and the punishment he deserves for his action. Adults with HFA/AS did not differ in judgments of suffering and causality from adults with typical development. However, subtle difficulties with judgments of intentional action and moral judgments were observed in participants with HFA/AS. These results are discussed in the light of emerging studies that deal with integrity of moral reasoning in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Quasiexperimental Design; Control Groups; Inferences; Research Methodology; Attribution Theory; Causal Models; Probability; Scoring; Regression (Statistics); Bias; Research Problems; On the Job Training; Industrial Psychology; Coaching (Performance); Teaching Methods; Predictor Variables; College Students

Abstract:
Organizational and applied sciences have long struggled with improving causal inference in quasi-experiments. We introduce organizational researchers to propensity scoring, a statistical technique that has become popular in other applied sciences as a means for improving internal validity. Propensity scoring statistically models how individuals in a quasi-experiment have been assigned to conditions in order to estimate treatment effects among individuals with approximately equal probabilities of receiving the treatment. If propensity scores are created from relevant covariates, matching on the propensity score makes treatment assignment ignorable and approximates a true experimental design. We illustrate how matching on the propensity score can be applied by using 2 examples: examining the effects of online instruction and estimating the benefits of preparatory coaching for the SAT. In both cases, propensity-scoring methods effectively reduced inequivalence between treatment and control groups on many variables. Propensity scoring stands out as a valuable technique capable of improving causal inference from many of organizational research's quasi-experiments. (Contains 5 tables, 1 figure and 7 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Mediation Theory; Statistical Analysis; Causal Models; Computation; Job Search Methods; Self Efficacy; Depression (Psychology); Intervention

Abstract:
This article presents marginal structural models with inverse propensity weighting (IPW) for assessing mediation. Generally, individuals are not randomly assigned to levels of the mediator. Therefore, confounders of the mediator and outcome may exist that limit causal inferences, a goal of mediation analysis. Either regression adjustment or IPW can be used to take confounding into account, but IPW has several advantages. Regression adjustment of even one confounder of the mediator and outcome that has been influenced by treatment results in biased estimates of the direct effect (i.e., the effect of treatment on the outcome that does not go through the mediator). One advantage of IPW is that it can properly adjust for this type of confounding, assuming there are no unmeasured confounders. Further, we illustrate that IPW estimation provides unbiased estimates of all effects when there is a baseline moderator variable that interacts with the treatment, when there is a baseline moderator variable that interacts with the mediator, and when the treatment interacts with the mediator. IPW estimation also provides unbiased estimates of all effects in the presence of nonrandomized treatments. In addition, for testing mediation we propose a test of the null hypothesis of no mediation. Finally, we illustrate this approach with an empirical data set in which the mediator is continuous, as is often the case in psychological research. (Contains 5 tables and 8 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Eating Disorders; Causal Models; Patients; Group Therapy; Outcomes of Treatment; Measures (Individuals); Scores; Attitude Change; Eating Habits; Goodness of Fit; Models; Correlation; Behavior Change; Intervention

Abstract:
The nature of the alliance-outcome relationship is still emerging. This study examined the reciprocal influence of change in alliance to the group and change in urge to restrict in eating-disordered individuals attending a group-based day treatment. Participants (N = 238) were a transdiagnostic or mixed diagnostic sample of eating-disordered individuals consecutively admitted to a day treatment program. On a weekly basis, participants completed a measure of alliance to the group of patients with whom they attended multiple group therapies each week. After each meal, they rated the intensity of their urge to restrict food intake, and the intensity ratings were averaged per week. Latent change score analysis was used to assess the reciprocal relationship between prior change in alliance to the group with subsequent change in urge to restrict, and prior change in urge to restrict with subsequent change in alliance to the group across each participant's first 9 weeks in the program. A reciprocal causal model was a good fit to the data. Prior growth in alliance to the group was significantly associated with subsequent reduction in urge to restrict, and concurrently, prior reduction in urge to restrict was significantly associated with subsequent growth in alliance to the group. Alliance to the group and individual outcomes are dynamically related and changing constructs represented by a reciprocal causal model. Clinicians may improve group treatment by assessing alliance to the group and outcomes repeatedly, being aware of their interplay, and structuring interventions based on the mutual causal effects of change in each. (Contains 2 figures and 4 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Therapy; Stuttering; Causal Models; Educational Objectives; Etiology; Epidemiology; Speech Language Pathology; Language Impairments; Intervention; Speech Therapy; Theory Practice Relationship; Educational Theories

Abstract:
There are many treatments currently available for stuttering, for both children and adults. These range from direct interventions intended to reduce the severity and/or frequency of the speech behaviors of stuttering, to those intended to alleviate the anxiety and other mental health issues that can accompany the disorder. However, as there are little supporting data for many of these treatments, there is little consensus about which to use. Another way to evaluate stuttering treatments is to explore the extent to which they address the cause of the disorder. However, the cause of stuttering is not yet known. In this theoretical paper, a 3-factor causal model is presented, to which the mechanisms thought to be driving different treatments are then aligned. The model is innovative, in that it attempts to explain moments of stuttering. It is argued that all causal factors must be operating at each moment of stuttering. The model is intended as a new way of looking at cause, and how treatments may address cause. It is hoped this will stimulate discussion and lead to further lines of inquiry. Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (a) describe the P&A 3-factor causal model of moments of stuttering; (b) state how indirect direct stuttering treatments relate to cause, according to the P&A model; (c) describe how direct stuttering treatments relate to cause, according to the P&A model; (d) state the purpose of cognitive behavior therapy; and (e) describe at least one suggestion for further research arising from the P&A model. (Contains 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Causal Models; Theory of Mind; Probability; Cognitive Development; Constructivism (Learning); Bayesian Statistics; Inferences; Intervention

Abstract:
We propose a new version of the "theory theory" grounded in the computational framework of probabilistic causal models and Bayesian learning. Probabilistic models allow a constructivist but rigorous and detailed approach to cognitive development. They also explain the learning of both more specific causal hypotheses and more abstract framework theories. We outline the new theoretical ideas, explain the computational framework in an intuitive and nontechnical way, and review an extensive but relatively recent body of empirical results that supports these ideas. These include new studies of the mechanisms of learning. Children infer causal structure from statistical information, through their own actions on the world and through observations of the actions of others. Studies demonstrate these learning mechanisms in children from 16 months to 4 years old and include research on causal statistical learning, informal experimentation through play, and imitation and informal pedagogy. They also include studies of the variability and progressive character of intuitive theory change, particularly theory of mind. These studies investigate both the physical and the psychological and social domains. We conclude with suggestions for further collaborative projects between developmental and computational cognitive scientists. (Contains 5 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
African American Students; Class Size; Recognition (Achievement); Causal Models; Ethnic Groups; Small Classes; Academic Achievement; Interaction; Structural Equation Models; Racial Differences; Ethnicity; Elementary School Students; Reading Achievement; Mathematics Achievement; Achievement Gains; Word Recognition

Abstract:
Does reduced class size cause higher academic achievement for both Black and other students in reading, mathematics, listening, and word recognition skills? Do Black students benefit more than other students from reduced class size? Does the magnitude of the minority advantages vary significantly across schools? This article addresses the causal questions via analysis of experimental data from Tennessee's Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio study where students and teachers are randomly assigned to small or regular class type. Causal inference is based on a three-level multivariate simultaneous equation model (SM) where the class type as an instrumental variable (IV) and class size as an endogenous regressor interact with a Black student indicator. The randomized IV causes class size to vary which, by hypothesis, influences academic achievement overall and moderates a disparity in academic achievement between Black and other students. Within each subpopulation characterized by the ethnicity, the effect of reduced class size on academic achievement is the average causal effect. The difference in the average causal effects between the race ethnic groups yields the causal disparity in academic achievement. The SM efficiently handles ignorable missing data with a general missing pattern and is estimated by maximum likelihood. This approach extends Rubin's causal model to a three-level SM with cross-level causal interaction effects, requiring intact schools and no interference between classrooms as a modified Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption. The results show that, for Black students, reduced class size causes higher academic achievement in the four domains each year from kindergarten to third grade, while for other students, it improves the four outcomes except for first-grade listening in kindergarten and first grade only. Evidence shows that Black students benefit more than others from reduced class size in first-, second-, and third-grade academic achievement. This article does not find evidence that the causal minority disparities are heterogeneous across schools in any given year. (Contains 3 figures, 4 tables, and 1 note.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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