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Descriptors:
Accounting; Business Administration Education; Educational Certificates; Higher Education; Job Skills; Professional Development; Standard Setting; Standards; Student Certification

Abstract:
This report presents the experiences and outcomes of accounting standards-setters who have, in many cases, been successful in establishing a national, uniform system of certification for public accountants. An executive summary appears first. The report begins with two sections that examine the evolution of accounting into a 20th-century profession. Two key aspects of accounting are highlighted: (1) the responsibilities intrinsic to the practice of accounting are ambiguous and require a unique combination of technical, academic, and employable skills that allow accountants to report facts objectively with a certain amount of subjective wisdom and guidance; and (2) the new responsibilities placed upon accountants due to changing technology and workplace dynamics have put pressure on the profession to specialize its services and create the accompanying education and certification. This preliminary discussion of accounting practice is followed by a more detailed investigation of accounting skill standards and how those standards are developed, taught, and assessed. The report presents accounting standards in terms of their technical, academic, and real-world characteristics. In its discussion of technical standards, the report focuses on the standards-setting process, the Certified Public Accountant exam, ethical standards, and continuing education. A discussion of academic and real-world skills highlights key issues surrounding accounting education and experience requirements. (Contains 85 references.) (YLB) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (1941K)

Descriptors:
Academic Education; Articulation (Education); Community Colleges; Coordination; Education Work Relationship; Educational Policy; Educational Practices; High Schools; Integrated Curriculum; Literature Reviews; Out of School Youth; Outcomes of Education; Program Effectiveness; Program Implementation; Questionnaires; School Business Relationship; Secondary Education; Synthesis; Tables (Data); Two Year Colleges; Vocational Education; Work Experience Programs

Abstract:
This report, which is directed toward policymakers, educators, employers, researchers, and others interested in the school-to-work (STW) movement, synthesizes literature on the development and effectiveness of STW programs since 1993. Part I provides an overview of the STW movement and examines the effectiveness of STW efforts in terms of available information on early labor market instability and subsequent outcomes. Federal and state policies in the years 1990-1995 and recent network-building efforts are reviewed in part 2. The following implementation issues are considered in part 3: integration of vocational and academic curricula in high schools and in community colleges; considerations in and strategies for linking secondary and postsecondary education; work-based learning; employer participation; and out-of-school youth. Part 4 summarizes recent evaluations and research studies that have measured STW program results in terms of performance at school or success in the labor market. Discussed in part 5 are continuing and emerging issues in the STW movement, including whether states can fit STW systems into coherent education policy frameworks and whether STW partnerships will become important, sustainable institutions. The report contains 302 references and 23 tables. Appended are the responses to a 1995 telephone survey. (MN) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (13841K)

Descriptors:
Certification; Comparative Analysis; Educational Change; Pilot Projects; Program Evaluation; School Business Relationship; Secondary Education; Skill Development

Abstract:
Analyzes 22 skill standards pilot projects to determine whether a strong focus on business needs thwarts education reform. Findings indicate that the majority of standards appear to clash with the goals of broader education reform, although a small number of the projects could have positive results. (GR)

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Descriptors:
Career Choice; Career Education; Career Exploration; Cognitive Development; College Bound Students; Constructivism (Learning); Education Work Relationship; Educational Change; Experiential Learning; High Schools; Vocational Education; Work Experience Programs

Abstract:
The case can be made that school-to-work programs can be a college preparatory strategy because they can teach academic skills as well as and possibly even better than more traditional approaches. The skepticism about its potential as a means of preparing students for college is based on misconceptions about its characteristics. Its three basic elements--authentic teaching and learning, out-of-class experience, and career and interest exploration--support all types of learning. Authentic teaching and learning requires students to develop in-depth understanding and apply academic learning to important, realistic problems. Experiences outside the classroom strengthen and increase the amount of knowledge learned, understood, and retained. Systematic exploration of student interests and career goals can stimulate interest in academic learning. Some of the most highly regarded school-to-work programs are explicitly designed for college-bound students. Empirical evidence shows many school-to-work programs have high college attendance rates and the use of authentic pedagogy leads to gains in both traditional test scores and in measures of authentic learning. Reformers have taken three broad approaches to reduce the conflict between participation in school-to-work activities and admission to selective colleges: accommodation of the school-to-work program within the existing college admission system, communication between individual schools and colleges, and reform of assessment and college admissions procedures. (Contains 10 references.) (YLB) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (190K)

Descriptors:
Career Education; College Bound Students; College Preparation; Education Work Relationship; High Schools; Higher Education; Occupational Aspiration; Work Experience Programs

Abstract:
This report makes the case for school-to-work as a college preparatory strategy by presenting relevant evidence and by suggesting policies that will facilitate the college preparatory potential of school-to-work. The report begins by explaining why parents, students, and educators should care whether school-to-work can successfully prepare students for college. Then, the report describes the basic characteristics of school-to-work, emphasizing how these characteristics differ from other more school-based reform efforts. It discusses these three basic elements of school-to-work: "learner centered" or "authentic" teaching; guided educational experiences outside the traditional classroom, particularly in the workplace; and a structured approach to help youth begin to form ideas about their future aspirations and how to achieve them. The next section presents empirical evidence that school-to-work programs have been successful in teaching academic skills and preparing students for college. Also discussed is the college admissions process and strategies that reformers are using to help school-to-work students gain access to selective colleges, such as accommodation of the school-to-work program within the existing college admissions system; the communication between individual schools and colleges; and attempts at broad change in assessment and college admissions procedures. Contains 55 references. (YLB) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (673K)

Descriptors:
Educational Certificates; Employment Qualifications; Job Analysis; Job Skills; Models; Occupational Information; Postsecondary Education; Secondary Education; Standards; Student Certification; Vocational Education

Abstract:
Two models of skill standards development and skill certification--the professional model and the skill components model--have been developed. Their development follows analysis of the skill standards movement and the 22 U.S. Departments of Labor and Education pilot projects developing skills standards for various industries. These two models differ along two critical dimensions--the conceptualization of skill and the role that workers play in the development and governance of the skill standards system. The skill component model is based on the limited, passive roles that workers are expected to assume in traditional hierarchical organizations. The concept of professionalism assumes that workers have the ability to apply general knowledge to a variety of nonroutine circumstances or situations. One of the crucial distinctions between skill standards as conceived under these two models is the ultimate purpose of the skill. In the skill components model, a list of skills indicates a set of specific tasks to be directed by someone other than the worker. In the professional model, a list of skills indicates a set of "enablers" that will enhance the worker's ability to carry out broader, autonomous responsibilities. An analysis of 21 pilot projects reveals a wide variation in practice. Many simply use already existing standards. Those that developed them base them on a skills component perspective. (Contains 10 references.) (YLB) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (210K)

Descriptors:
Academic Education; Academic Standards; Cooperative Planning; Curriculum Development; Educational Objectives; Employment Qualifications; Integrated Curriculum; Models; Partnerships in Education; Pilot Projects; Postsecondary Education; Program Development; Program Improvement; School Business Relationship; Secondary Education; Student Certification; Systems Approach; Vocational Education

Abstract:
The objectives and development of the skill standards movement were examined along with 22 pilot projects that were undertaken as part of an effort to promote the development of a national system of voluntary industry-based skill standards. First, the past and present of the skill standards movement and certification practices were analyzed along with selected models of skill and skill certification (the skill components and professional models, skills and certification in craft occupations, and certification of Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills and generic skills). Next, the skill standards pilot projects were studied, and the study findings were synthesized into the following recommendations regarding goals/evaluation, substantive content, and governance of skill standards programs: clarify the movement's goals; make skills standards systems consistent with the broader, more "professionalized" role of workers in innovative workplaces; continue the important progress already achieved in involving employer organizations and associations; strengthen partnerships between employer organizations and schools; and strengthen the involvement of workers and worker representatives in the skill standard system's governance structure. Appended are four charts detailing existing industry-based standards and possible levels of academic-vocational integration, workplace integration, and organization of skill standards. Contains 58 references. (MN) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (3059K)

Descriptors:
Academic Education; Agricultural Education; Apprenticeships; Cooperative Education; Cooperative Programs; Coordination; Education Work Relationship; Educational Certificates; Educational Change; Inplant Programs; Integrated Curriculum; Partnerships in Education; Postsecondary Education; Secondary Education; Student Recruitment; Technology Education; Vocational Education

Abstract:
Although there is no fixed definition of youth apprenticeship, a consensus is emerging on four basic components: student participation, educational content, location of instruction, and credentialing. Except for some recent pilot projects, no youth apprenticeship programs in the United States have all four components, but educators have some experience with each component. German youth apprenticeship systems avoid many problems that plague U.S. education, but philosophical and practical differences cause problems with an analogy between the two countries. Four school-to-work programs in the United States share some features with youth apprenticeship: agricultural education, cooperative education, career academies, and tech prep. An assessment of how the four components of youth apprenticeship work in these four program models shows that, first, although many programs have expanded their enrollments beyond at-risk youth or traditional vocational education students, two negative tendencies emerge: programs tend to become internally differentiated and perpetuate the divisions between types of students and college-bound students are only tenuously involved. Second, efforts to integrate academic and vocational content remains limited. Third, none of the four models even approaches the transformation of workplaces into integral parts of the basic education system. Fourth, credentialling is currently ad hoc. (Conains 10 references.) (YLB) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (300K)

Descriptors:
Agricultural Education; Apprenticeships; Cooperative Education; Credentials; Curriculum; Education Work Relationship; Educational Certificates; Feasibility Studies; Models; On the Job Training; Postsecondary Education; Program Content; Secondary Education; Standards; Student Certification; Student Participation; Technical Education; Transitional Programs; Vocational Education; Youth Programs

Abstract:
The feasibility of youth apprenticeship in the United States was assessed by examining problems and successes of programs that include components of the apprenticeship model. The approach to analysis of youth apprenticeship was to break down the model into four components: student participation, educational content, location of instruction, and credentialling. Four types of school-to-work models that share characteristics with the apprenticeship model were examined: agricultural education, cooperative education, high school career academies, and tech prep. The analysis yielded the following findings: (1) the successes of career academies, tech prep, and agricultural education provide feasible models for combining practical and academic learning; (2) cooperative education often involves little coordination between workplaces and classrooms; (3) more extensive employer involvement is necessary; (4) programs providing a broad educational foundation have difficulty meeting occupation-specific credential standards; and (5) existing models often perpetuate divisions between types of students, and when they include college-bound students, they often exclude less academically oriented students. One of the most serious potential problems with the model concerned location of instruction: whether the workplace could effectively provide a significant portion of the education for a large segment of youth. Problems with developing appropriate credentials were also far from being solved but could only be confronted seriously when more progress had been made on the issues of target group, content, and location. One strategy was suggested to develop a large-scale youth apprenticeship system in which a significant part of the learning takes place on the job: build on the primarily school-based models such as academies and tech prep. Key research areas were identified. (Contains 149 references.) (YLB) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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 ERIC Full Text (1969K)

Descriptors:
Comparative Analysis; Intermediate Grades; Learning Disabilities; Narration; Story Grammar; Story Telling

Abstract:
Twenty language-disordered and 20 nonimpaired children, aged 9-11, performed story generation and story retelling tasks. For both groups, retold narratives were longer and contained more story grammar components and complete episode structures. Clause length differentiated story generation from story retelling for the language-disordered children but not for the control group. (Author/JDD)

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