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Descriptors:
Selection; Role; Homework; Assignments; Student Motivation; Academic Achievement; Context Effect; Outcomes of Education; Classroom Environment; Educational Research; Personal Autonomy; High School Students

Abstract:
This investigation examined the effects of providing choices among homework assignments on motivation and subsequent academic performance. Students were randomly assigned within classrooms either to receive a choice of homework options or to be assigned an option for all homework in one instructional unit. Conditions were reversed for a second instructional unit. Results revealed that when students received a choice of homework they reported higher intrinsic motivation to do homework, felt more competent regarding the homework, and performed better on the unit test compared with when they did not have a choice. In addition, a trend suggested that having choices enhanced homework completion rates compared with when no choices were given. In a second analysis involving the same students, the importance of perceived provision of choice was examined in the context of student perceptions of their teachers' support for autonomy more broadly defined. Survey data showed that the relationship between perceptions of receiving autonomy support from teachers and intrinsic motivation for schoolwork could be fully accounted for by students' perceptions of receiving choices from their teachers. The limitations and implications of the study for research and practice are discussed. (Contains 11 tables and 3 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Extended School Day; Extended School Year; Educational Research; Academic Achievement; Attitudes; Research Design; Literature Reviews

Abstract:
Attention has been directed toward extended school time as a measure to improve academic achievement. The school year and day length have varied over time and across localities depending on the particular needs of the community. Proponents argue that extending time will have learning and non-academic benefits. Opponents suggest increased time is not guaranteed to lead to more effective instruction and suggest other costs. Despite noted limitations in the research, past reviewers have argued that any positive relation between allocated time and achievement is tentative and instructional quality needs to be addressed first. After a comprehensive search of the literature, 15 empirical studies of various designs conducted since 1985 were found. The literature revealed that (a) designs are generally weak for making causal inferences and (b) outcomes other than achievement are scarcely studied. That said, findings suggest that extending school time can be an effective way to support student learning, particularly (a) for students most at risk of school failure and (b) when considerations are made for how time is used. Of note, the strongest research designs produced the most consistent positive results. Implications for policy and practice are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 2 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Behavior Problems; Academic Achievement; Kindergarten; Inferences; Social Development; Meta Analysis; Measures (Individuals); Attendance; Self Concept; Research Needs; Educational Benefits

Abstract:
A meta-analysis found that attending full-day (or all-day) kindergarten had a positive association with academic achievement (compared to half-day kindergarten) equal to about one quarter standard deviation at the end of the kindergarten year. But the association disappeared by third grade. Reasons for this fade-out are discussed. Social development measures revealed mixed results. Evidence regarding child independence was inconclusive. Evidence was suggestive of a small positive association between full-day kindergarten and attendance and a more substantial positive association with the child's self-confidence and ability to work and play with others. However, children may not have as positive an attitude toward school in full-day versus half-day kindergarten and may experience more behavior problems. In general, the research on full-day kindergarten would benefit from future studies that allow strong causal inferences and that include more nonacademic outcomes. The authors suggest that full-day kindergarten should be available to all children but not necessarily universally prescribed. (Contains 7 notes and 6 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Data Analysis; Meta Analysis; Databases; Coordination; Research Methodology; Effect Size; Inferences; Individual Characteristics; Groups; Comparative Analysis

Abstract:
The authors describe the relative benefits of conducting meta-analyses with (a) individual participant data (IPD) gathered from the constituent studies and (b) aggregated data (AD), or the group-level statistics (in particular, effect sizes) that appear in reports of a study's results. Given that both IPD and AD are equally available, meta-analysis of IPD is superior to meta-analysis of AD. IPD meta-analysis permits synthesists to perform subgroup analyses not conducted by the original collectors of the data, to check the data and analyses in the original studies, to add new information to the data sets, and to use different statistical methods. However, the cost of IPD meta-analysis and the lack of available IPD data sets suggest that the best strategy currently available is to use both approaches in a complementary fashion such that the first step in conducting an IPD meta-analysis would be to conduct an AD meta-analysis. Regardless of whether a meta-analysis is conducted with IPD or AD, synthesists must remain vigilant in how they interpret their results. They must avoid ecological fallacies, Simpson's paradox, and interpretation of synthesis-generated evidence as supporting causal inferences. (Contains 1 table and 11 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Elementary School Students; Homework; Mathematics Achievement; Parent Participation; Parent School Relationship; Meta Analysis; Academic Achievement; Correlation; High School Students; Middle School Students

Abstract:
New emphasis is being placed on the importance of parent involvement in children's education. In a synthesis of research on the effects of parent involvement in homework, a meta-analysis of 14 studies that manipulated parent training for homework involvement reveals that training parents to be involved in their child's homework results in (a) higher rates of homework completion, (b) fewer homework problems, and (c) possibly, improved academic performance among elementary school children. A meta-analysis of 22 samples from 20 studies correlating parent involvement and achievement-related outcomes reveals (a) positive associations for elementary school and high school students but a negative association for middle school students, (b) a stronger association for parent rule-setting compared with other involvement strategies, and (c) a negative association for mathematics achievement but a positive association for verbal achievement outcomes. The results suggest that different types of parent involvement in homework have different relationships to achievement and that the type of parent involvement changes as children move through the school grades. (Contains 1 note and 12 tables.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Research Methodology; Program Effectiveness; Evaluation Methods; Scores; Evaluators; Decision Making; Violence; Prevention; Substance Abuse; Mental Health; Intervention

Abstract:
Assessments of studies meant to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, programs, and policies can serve an important role in the interpretation of research results. However, evidence suggests that available quality assessment tools have poor measurement characteristics and can lead to opposing conclusions when applied to the same body of studies. These tools tend to (a) be insufficiently operational, (b) rely on arbitrary post-hoc decision rules, and (c) result in a single number to represent a multidimensional construct. In response to these limitations, a multilevel and hierarchical instrument was developed in consultation with a wide range of methodological and statistical experts. The instrument focuses on the operational details of studies and results in a profile of scores instead of a single score to represent study quality. A pilot test suggested that satisfactory between-judge agreement can be obtained using well-trained raters working in naturalistic conditions. Limitations of the instrument are discussed, but these are inherent in making decisions about study quality given incomplete reporting and in the absence of strong, contextually based information about the effects of design flaws on study outcomes. (Contains 5 tables, 2 figures, and 3 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Control Groups; Student Motivation; Rewards; Self Motivation; Meta Analysis; Performance; Self Concept; Comparative Analysis; Children; Adults

Abstract:
A meta-analysis of 41 studies examined the effect of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes in a variety of settings with both child and adult samples. Results indicated that providing choice enhanced intrinsic motivation, effort, task performance, and perceived competence, among other outcomes. Moderator tests revealed the effect of choice on intrinsic motivation was stronger (a) for instructionally irrelevant choices compared to choices made between activities, versions of a task, rewards, and instructionally relevant options, (b) when 2 to 4 successive choices were given, (c) when rewards were not given after the choice manipulation, (d) when participants given choice were compared to the most controlling forms of control groups, (e) for children compared to adults, (f) for designs that yoked choice and control conditions compared to matched designs in which choice was reduced or designs in which nonyoked, nonmatched controls were used, and (g) when the experiment was conducted in a laboratory embedded in a natural setting. Implications for future research and applications to real-world settings are discussed. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Homework; Academic Achievement; Scores; Educational Research; Correlation; Research Methodology; Achievement Gains; Elementary School Students; High School Students; Causal Models; Student Characteristics; Family Influence; Student Behavior

Abstract:
Opinions vary on whether or not homework has positive effects on achievement. In the literature, the author found six studies conducted between 1987 and 2003 that compared homeworkers with no-homeworkers, and equated students by using either: (1) random assignments of students to conditions; or (2) statistical controls or by matching a student in one group with a similar student in the other group while eliminating students who did not have a good match. The results provided a clear picture that homework can be effective in improving students' scores on unit tests, that is, the class tests that are administered at the end of a topic unit. Second-grade students who did home-work did better than no-homework peers on number places; those in third and fourth grade did better on English skills and vocabulary; those in fifth grade, on social studies; high school students, on American history; and twelfth graders, on Shakespeare. Across five studies, the average (fiftieth-percentile) homework doer had a higher unit test score than 73 percent of students not doing homework. However, correlational studies suggest the homework-achievement link for young children on broader measures of achievement appears to be weak. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Homework; Teaching Methods; Standards; Academic Achievement; Independent Study; Teachers; Students; Young Children

Abstract:
Homework has been a controversial teaching strategy throughout the twentieth century and continuing into the twenty-first. This brief presents a history of homework, in which media-fueled outcries for more or less homework occur cyclically, about fifteen to twenty years apart. It describes homework practices today and the beneficial and negative effects it can have beyond achievement on young children. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Homework; Instructional Effectiveness; Individualized Instruction; Group Activities; Computer Assisted Instruction; Rewards; Grading; Difficulty Level; Time Factors (Learning); Mathematics Instruction; Educational Research

Abstract:
Perhaps more than any question other than "How much time should students spend doing homework?" parents and educators want to know, "What kinds of homework assignments are most effective?" Clearly, the answers to this question vary according to many factors, especially the developmental level of students and the topic area. Generally, answers are hard to find; and even for assignment variations that have been the focus of research, findings are sometimes hard to interpret. Still, a few consistent findings do emerge. A literature review reveals: (1) Studies that examined practice and preparation homework have consistently favored assigning homework for these purposes, and have suggested that distributed content may have a larger impact on delayed measurement of achievement than on immediate measurement; (2) Interspersing easy and hard problems throughout an assignment also appears to improve its effectiveness, perceived difficulty, and enjoyableness; and (3) Individualization of assignments by difficulty may have little effect on students' ultimate achievement, but preparing assignments that take into account individual students' learning styles may be more effective. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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