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Descriptors:
Aquatic Sports; Physical Activities; Athletics; Track and Field; Team Sports; Exercise Physiology; Exercise; Human Body; Metabolism; Athletes

Abstract:
There is an expectation that at each Olympic Games, and at other international events, new record performances will be achieved. This article describes some of the research that has been done to consider whether (as a result of human endeavour alone), records will always continue to be broken or whether there are limits to the shortest achievable times in running and swimming, or the greatest achievable heights or distances in jumping events. (Contains 1 box and 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Video Technology; Athletics; Physical Activities; Track and Field; Computers; Athletes; Photography; Information Technology

Abstract:
Video photography of races is now routinely used in international running events to provide automatic recording of the position within each race achieved by the athletes, as well as the time taken in order to check whether records have been broken. This article describes how several cameras provide the evidence that is collated using computers and is available for checking and verification by officials. (Contains 7 figures.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Physical Education; Guidelines; Track and Field; Exercise Physiology; Athletic Coaches

Abstract:
Accurate quantification of training intensity is an essential component of a training program (Rowbottom, 2000). A training program designed to optimize athlete performance abilities cannot be practically planned or implemented without a valid and reliable indication of training intensity and its effect on the physiological mechanisms of the human body (Olbrecht, 2001; Rowbottom, 2000). Additionally, for sport coaches to make evidence-based changes in the training process, or assess an athlete's physiologic response to a training prescription, valid and reliable measures of training intensity must be used (Olbrecht, 2001; Rowbottom, 2000). This study developed and field tested a standardized system of training intensity guidelines for the sports of track and field/cross-country, modeled after the standardized system of training intensity guidelines developed, adopted, and in use by U.S.A. Swimming; and explored track and field and cross-country coaches' receptivity to, and perceived utility of, the guidelines developed. This paper: (a) reviews the training intensity guidelines developed, inclusive of the associated physiologic metrics validated in the study; (b) describes a seasonal application of the guidelines; and (c) concludes with supporting commentary from the teacher/coaches interviewed in the study; all of whom uniformly confirmed the utility and applicability of the guidelines. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Track and Field; Students; Athletes; Athletics; Foreign Countries; Mathematics; Mathematics Instruction; Mathematics Education; Mathematics Teachers; College Students; Higher Education

Abstract:
With the London 2012 Olympics coming up, now is a good time for teachers to turn to track and field athletics for an application that has the potential to be intrinsically interesting to many pupils in schools new undergraduates. In this article, curves, well-known amongst former generations of pupils, are revisited by looking at the markings on the track for competitors in a range of events. Reciprocal spirals and involutes of circles emerge. These describe staggered starts and curved start lines, respectively. Modelling and other practical tasks based on measurements laid down by the IAAF are discussed. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Physical Activities; Foreign Countries; Childrens Rights; Public Policy; Athletics; Conflict; Cooperation; Competition; Burnout; Ideology; Guidelines; Team Sports; Case Studies

Abstract:
The focus of this article is on the organization of children's sport in Norway. More specifically, the paper sets out to examine (i) the changing pattern of relationships, and in particular the changing balance of conflict and cooperation, between the several organizations with responsibility for children's sport, and (ii) how sport for children is regulated in order to protect children against the dangers associated with competitive pressures, overspecialization and burnout. These questions are answered by tracing the key policy changes and initiatives in relation to children's sport. With reference to the organization of children's sport, the ideological struggles between schools and sport organizations over the nature and objectives of sport and physical activity are traced from the 1950s through to recent attempts to promote an Active Sports policy, which represent possible partnerships between several governmental ministries (culture, health and education), schools, and sport clubs. With reference to protecting children against competitive pressures and early overspecialization, the article traces the development from the first advisory guidelines for children's sporting participation through to mandatory regulations and finally to the recognition of children's rights in sport. (Contains 3 notes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Track and Field; Team Sports; Mathematical Concepts; Probability; Mathematics Instruction; Play; Racquet Sports; Athletics; Journal Articles; College Athletics; Teaching Methods; Computation; Physics; Creative Teaching

Abstract:
"Mathematics and Sports", edited by Joseph A. Gallian, gathers 25 articles that illuminate the power and role of mathematics in the worlds of professional and recreational play. Divided into sections by the kind of sports, the book offers source materials for classroom use and student projects. Readers will encounter mathematical ideas from an eclectic group of writers, including undergraduate students, graduate students, and professional mathematicians. Following a preface, this book contains: (I) Baseball: (1) Sabremetrics: The Past, the Present, and the Future (Jim Albert); (2) Surprising Streaks and Playoff Parity: Probability Problems in a Sports Context (Rick Cleary); (3) Did Humidifying the Baseball Decrease the Number of Homers at Coors Field? (Howard Penn); (4) Streaking: Finding the Probability for a Batting Streak (Stanley Rothman and Quoc Le); (II) Basketball: (5) Bracketology: How can math help? (Tim Chartier, Erich Kreutzer, Amy Langville, and Kathryn Pedings); (6) Down 4 with a Minute to Go (G. Edgar Parker); (7) Jump Shot Mathematics (Howard Penn); (III) Football: (8) How Deep Is Your Playbook? (Tricia Muldoon Brown and Eric B. Kahn); (9) A Look at Overtime in the NFL (Chris Jones); (10) Extending the Colley Method to Generate Predictive Football Rankings (R. Drew Pasteur); (11) When Perfect Isn't Good Enough: Retrodictive Rankings in College Football (R. Drew Pasteur); (IV) Golf: (12) The Science of a Drive (Douglas N. Arnold); (13) Is Tiger Woods a Winner? (Scott M. Berry); (14) G. H. Hardy's Golfing Adventure (Roland Minton); (15) Tigermetrics (Roland Minton); (V) NASCAR: (16) Can Mathematics Make a Difference? Exploring Tire Troubles in NASCAR (Cheryll E. Crowe); (VI) Scheduling: (17) Scheduling a Tournament (Dalibor Froncek); (VII) Soccer: (18) Bending a Soccer Ball with Math (Tim Chartier); (VIII) Tennis: (19) Teaching Mathematics and Statistics Using Tennis (Reza Noubary); (20) Peentage Play in Tennis (G. Edgar Parker); and (IX) Track and Field: (21) The Effects of Wind and Altitude in the 400m Sprint with Various IAAF Track Geometries (Vanessa Alday and Michael Frantz); (23) What is the Speed Limit for Men's 100 Meter Dash? (Reza Noubary); (24) May the Best Team Win: Determining the Winner of a Cross Country Race (Stephen Szydlik); (25) Biomechanics of Running and Walking (Anthony Tongen and Roshna E. Wunderlich). Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Physical Education; Athletics; War; Democracy; Human Body; Self Concept; Foreign Countries; Curriculum Development; Political Influences; Ideology; Educational History; Social Systems; Guidelines; Power Structure

Abstract:
Between the years 1950 and 1974 there was a conservative view regarding physical education (PE) and the perception of the body in Greek PE curricula. PE was seen as an ideological means of legitimising political dominance. Before the Athens Olympic games of 2004, educational authorities were assigned the duty of promoting the Olympic spirit in education, and a new PE and sports curriculum was developed. The main question of this paper is why PE was not perceived as an autonomous subject, but had to be related to the State's major political and ideological agendas, in the context of both dictatorship and democracy. A Foucauldian perspective is adopted concerning perceptions of the body as an agent of power, and Bernstein's framework will be used to analyse PE curricula. (Contains 49 footnotes.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Human Body; Physical Activities; Training; Track and Field; Males; Athletes; Exercise Physiology; Biomechanics; Comparative Analysis; Foreign Countries

Abstract:
Our purpose was to compare the effect of a periodized preparation consisting of power endurance training and high-intensity power training on the contractile properties of the quadriceps muscle and functional performances in well trained male sprinters (n = 7). After 4 weeks of high-intensity power training, 60-m sprint running time improved by an average of 1.83% (SD = 0.96; p less than 0.05). This improvement was inversely related to an increase in maximal voluntary contraction torque (r = -0.89, p less than 0.05) and poorly correlated with changes in the contractile kinetics of the quadriceps muscle (r range from 0.36 to -0.46). These findings suggest that sprint performance is poorly predicted by muscle intrinsic properties and that a neural adaptation appears to explain most of the observed functional adaptations. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Track and Field; Aquatic Sports; Athletes; Age Differences; Adolescents; Team Sports; Athletics; Motivation; Aging (Individuals); Age Groups; Adults; Effect Size

Abstract:
The relative age effect refers to the performance-related advantage of being born early in a cohort or selection year. Until recently it was unknown whether the relative age effect generalizes across the lifespan. Medic, Starkes, and Young (2007) reasoned that the 5-year age categories that are widely used in masters-level sports to organize competitions and award prizes might be used to examine whether a relative age effect exists in older sports populations beyond the age of 35 years. Given the preliminary nature of Medic et al.'s (2007) results, along with their acknowledgment that those results "might not be generalizable to masters athletes from sports other than swimming and track and field or to masters athletes from countries other than the United States" (p. 1383), one purpose of this study was to determine if Medic et al.'s (2007) relative age effect findings can be replicated with world-class masters swimmers and track and field athletes from different countries. The second purpose of this study was to determine if a relative age effect exists in previously unexamined sports, such as masters weightlifting and rowing. The results of this study indicated that a relative age effect exists in masters swimming and track and field, but not in masters weightlifting and rowing, suggesting that this effect depends on the sport in which masters-level athletes compete. In particular, the authors' findings showed that the likelihood of participating in the world-level masters swimming competition is higher for individuals in the first year of an age category. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.) Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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Descriptors:
Classroom Techniques; Track and Field; Aquatic Sports; Prediction; Interaction; Human Body; Physical Activities; Physical Education; Physical Activity Level; Research; Data Analysis; Models

Abstract:
The conductors of this study reviewed prediction research and studied the accomplishments and compromises in predicting world records and best performances in track and field and swimming. The results of the study showed that prediction research only promises to describe the historical trends in track and field and swimming performances, to study the limits of human body based on current data, to examine factors that affect human's running, jumping, throwing, and swimming, and to understand the characteristics of human beings. Prediction research cannot accurately predict new world records and future best performances. In the future, prediction research should become an integrated research field consisting of different specialty areas. Researchers need to develop a better model in which random variables could be separated out as independent variables in order to reflect the complex interaction effects and to understand the nature, characteristics, and limitations of humans using world record/best performance data. Note:The following two links are not-applicable for text-based browsers or screen-reading software. Show Hide Full Abstract

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